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Gangs in effect provide a psychological crutch and a social life, especially for bored young men from broken families. Family , Friends and Violence Cambridge, , p. Hide Footnote Accounts of the gangs in the U. Once rooted in the Northern Triangle countries, however, these gangs adapted to the conditions of marginal urban communities characterised by negligible public services, limited economic opportunities, and a population recently displaced by civil war, deportation and impoverishment. Although Honduras did not suffer a civil war, urban poverty rates increased there by 18 per cent from to , according to the World Bank.

The Bank has argued this is partly due to a statistical anomaly. Hide Footnote The need to subsist encouraged illicit activity, while the absence of the state enabled them to exert their own control over entire territories, often after brutal fighting with the rival mara to establish an undisputed turf boss. Hide Footnote This tendency was most marked in El Salvador, where the civil war of the s had familiarised the general public with sub-national areas run by the guerrilla. In the wake of the mass detention of gang members across the Northern Triangle, the hub of these extortion rackets shifted to prisons, where maras established in effect new territorial enclaves as a result of the extremely weak official control over jails.

Furthermore, the harsh sentences handed down during the early s meant the old ranfleros , or first and second generation leaders, needed more resources to provide for families outside jail and to improve their own prison conditions, or to pay lawyers and bribe guards.

Introduction

Forced recruitment has become common, and entrance into the maras often involves initiation by killing. Hide Footnote At the neighbourhood level, clicas cliques, or cells control the local turf under the supervision of a leader, known as ranflero or primera palabra first word. A programa program for its part joins together members of various clicas in specific money-making crimes, while those in charge of killings are known as sicarios hit-men or gatilleros trigger-pullers. At the lowest rungs of the ladder, so-called paros or banderas flags act as auxiliaries, collectors of extortion money, gun-runners, spies and recruitment officers.

But the MS and the B have assumed slightly different characteristics across the three Northern Triangle countries. The mara gangs that emerged in the late s responded in distinct ways to the social, geographic and institutional conditions of each Northern Triangle country. Hide Footnote The environment and illicit opportunities of the territory the maras took over and the traits of the communities living there were at the heart of this adaptive flexibility. In combination, these determined whether territorial control could be established and what kind of criminal livelihoods could be pursued.

Maras veered toward either extortion, as in Guatemala and El Salvador, or small-scale drug trafficking, like the MS in Honduras, where it has reportedly been involved in money laundering via the purchase of small businesses. Hide Footnote In response, the Honduran B has sought to seize control of the booming extortion business, leading to violent competition with smaller gangs or mara offshoots such as Los Benjis or Los Chirizos. Some of them have been supported by small business owners seeking to defend themselves from predatory attacks by the larger maras.

Drug trafficking in Guatemala has been a marginal business for the gangs, due to the control over trade of existing local criminal organisations with strong links to the state and security forces. Hide Footnote These organisations have turned to gang members on an occasional basis for street narcotic sales and targeted violence or intimidation. Hide Footnote In territories controlled by drug traffickers, including border regions and urban areas used for storage and transhipment, maras can operate as watchmen, security enforcers, transporters or hitmen.

Hide Footnote In poor areas of Guatemala City, gang members have displaced families and drug traffickers have temporarily used their homes as warehouses.

Hide Footnote Some cliques in the west coastal areas of El Salvador are reportedly becoming engaged in the trafficking of drugs north, while Salvadoran gang members have been seen buying weapons from Guatemalan drug dealers. Hide Footnote Meanwhile, drug consumption mostly marijuana by maras across the Northern Triangle is extremely common.

Thousands of suspected gang members were arrested for minor drug possession in in Guatemala. The geographical spread of criminal violence and gang presence in Guatemala illustrates the conditions that either enable the proliferation of maras or inhibit their growth. Hide Footnote Neither El Salvador nor Honduras initially featured rival criminal structures or vibrant community networks with the same strength as Guatemala. As the most important crime and revenue-raising business of the maras , extortion is fundamental to understanding their resilience as well as the fear they have spread in their host societies.

In El Salvador, local transport businesses inducted the emerging neighbourhood gangs of the early s into extortion rackets, paying them to intimidate rival firms or carry out targeted killings. Across the Northern Triangle, small business owners, transport workers, self-employed people and even households are subjected to gang-led protection rackets. Crisis Group interview, expert in community security, 8 March Hide Footnote A recent survey in El Salvador has found that extortion is on the rise and now affects 22 per cent of firms, although only 15 per cent of all incidents are reported, reflecting the lack of confidence in the response capacities of the local police and judiciary.

In a reported 76 per cent of cases, gangs were behind the extortion. Two to three businesses are estimated to close down each month as a result of extortions. In a survey of mareros in the Northern Triangle, 77 per cent of respondents said payments were made by the gangs to the police. Hide Footnote Firms in the Guatemala City municipal market have established regular payment systems to gangs to protect themselves from more predatory rivals.

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Hide Footnote During the El Salvador gang truce, some local businesses reached their own informal agreements with the maras. A manufacturing company and a transport firm offered gang members jobs in exchange for halting their rackets. A food distribution firm enlisted gangs to transport goods in exchange for lower extortion rates. Residents in a housing estate employed gang members to supervise access routes to their properties.


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  • In other cases, businesses seek to shield themselves by working with local distributors linked to the gangs, often family members of the mareros. These negotiated arrangements reportedly resulted in a more discriminating use of violence. However, these cases of accommodation with extortion rackets do not erase the extremes of violence in protection economies. Transport firms and their workers in particular have become targets of systematic intimidation and assassination, forced to pay up for crossing gang-controlled territory. A total of transportation workers were killed between and in El Salvador, where the maras brought public transport to a standstill in and again in It also periodically affects mobility in Guatemala, where bus drivers, ticket inspectors and passengers were killed between and , causing many bus routes to stop services in gang-run areas.

    Hide Footnote Taxi drivers in Tegucigalpa, Honduras, are favoured extortion targets, and are forced to pay the gangs who control the areas where their pick-up stations are located: 84 were killed in The role of extortion in driving forced displacement is harder to pinpoint due to a lack of reliable statistics, as well as the difficulty in identifying a single cause behind emigration.

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    Hide Footnote A recent study found that threats and murders were the two main factors driving forced internal displacement in that country, with women making up the largest share of victims. Gangs were reportedly behind 86 per cent of the displacements. The gangs themselves, meanwhile, have become dependent on extortion incomes to improve prison conditions for incarcerated leaders and sustain their members, albeit on poverty-level incomes. Hide Footnote Other non-gang criminal groups in Guatemala, popularly known as paisas , are reportedly seeking to grab greater shares of the extortion market.

    Hide Footnote Over 50 people detained in Guatemala City in were found to be living in insalubrious housing in poor neighbourhoods. Most members languish in illicit subsistence livelihoods. Although operations may be becoming more technical and efficient, there is no evidence of maras becoming higher level criminal organisations in the league of other transnational cartels.

    Women are central to gang operations across the Northern Triangle.