Manual THE ANATOMY OF THE ATMOSPHERE

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This artist's illustration shows the atmosphere of a brown dwarf called 2MASSJ, which was observed simultaneously by.
Table of contents

The lungs' main function is to help oxygen from the air we breathe enter the red cells in the blood. Red blood cells then carry oxygen around the body to be used in the cells found in our body. The lungs also help the body to get rid of CO 2 gas when we breathe out. There are a number of other jobs carried out by the lungs that include:. Breathing in is called inhalation. The most important muscle of inhalation is the diaphragm. Found beneath the lungs, the diaphragm is a dome-shaped muscle. When this muscle gets tighter contracts , it flattens and the lungs increase in size.

This sucks air down into your lungs. Some of the oxygen in the air can then be transferred into your bloodstream. Some of the carbon dioxide in your blood is transferred into the air that is in your lungs. This controls the levels of oxygen and carbon dioxide in your bloodstream. Breathing out exhalation is the opposite of inhalation.

The diaphragm and other chest muscles relax. This makes the lungs decrease in size so that air is pushed back out of your lungs and out through your mouth or nose. The basic rhythm of breathing is controlled by the brain. Part of the brain called the brainstem has a special area dedicated to maintaining your breathing pattern. Nerve impulses from the brainstem control the contractions of your diaphragm and the other muscles of breathing. This is all done without thinking. However, other parts of the brain can temporarily overrule the brainstem.

This is how we are able consciously to hold our breath or change our pattern of breathing.

While the brain controls the basic rhythm of breathing, it also receives information from sensors in the body. Yet it turns out that, if one examines a fuller set of data from the Southern Hemispheric , 13 years' worth of data that Santer et al. Moreover, if we carefully examine the land-based temperature records, we discover that it is the regions most heavily covered by sulfates — the midlatitude land areas of the Northern Hemisphere — that have experienced the greatest amount of warming. That, of course, is the exact opposite of what we should discover if the masking hypothesis were correct.

Respiratory system

As I noted a few moments ago, a few of the climate models come reasonably close to replicating past and present climatic conditions when historical data are entered. Those models, interestingly enough, predict the least amount of future warming based on present trends. The two most prominent of those models, those of the National Center for Atmospheric Research and the U.

Meteorological Organization, predict warming of only 1. The argument for moderate climate sensitivity to anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions largely rests on three observations:. Despite all the uncertainty, we are constantly told that there is a "consensus" of scientific opinion that human-induced climate changes are occurring and that they are a matter of serious concern.

Global Warming in SuperFreakonomics: The Anatomy of a Smear

That belief is largely due to the weight given the IPCC report, where this consensus is supposedly reflected. Here is the talismanic sentence in the executive summary of that report, a summation of the pages written not by the scientists who produced that report but by a small, politically appointed executive committee: "the balance of the evidence suggests" that human influences explain some of the detected warming. Now, compare that statement with this, which appears on p.

Counterbalancing IPCC's note of cautious concern are other, far harsher judgements about the scientific evidence for global climate change:. A recent joint statement signed by 2, scientists under the auspices of the environmental group Ozone Action is less than compelling. How costly might global warming prove to be years hence?

Structure of the Atmosphere

Well, that largely depends on the distribution of warming through time and space. It also depends on how much warming occurs; will it be the upper bound or lower bound estimate that comes to pass? For what it's worth, I tend to agree with the IPCC's summary statement that the "balance of the evidence suggests" that anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions explain some of the detected warming observed thus far over the past years.

But as noted earlier, that warming has been extremely moderate, has been largely confined to the northern latitudes during winter nights, and has exhibited no real detrimental effects thus far. I expect those trends to continue and that's the main reason why I doubt that the costs of warming will be particularly consequential.

The present observed warming pattern is certainly consistent with our understanding both of atmospheric physics, which indicates the following:. Indeed, this warming scenario predicts benign, not deleterious, effects on both the environment and the economy. But what if the warming turns out to be more serious than this? What if the median estimate reported by the climate models comes to pass: a 2. There have been six particularly comprehensive or prominent serious studies undertaken to estimate the macroeconomic consequences of such a warming.

None of them gives us much reason for alarm. The main reason is that most modern industries are relatively immune to weather. Climate affects principally agriculture, forestry, and fishing, which together constitute less than 2 percent of U. Manufacturing, most service industries, and nearly all extractive industries remain unaffected by climate shifts. A few services, such as tourism, may be susceptible to temperature or precipitation alterations: a warmer climate would be likely to shift the nature and location of pleasure trips. Back when the world was more concerned with global cooling than global warming, the DOT brought together the most distinguished group of academics ever assembled before or after to examine the economic implications of both cooling and warming.

In dollars, the DOT study concluded that a. Only increases in electricity demand appeared on the "cost" side of the warming ledger. Gains in wages, reduced fossil fuel consumption, lower housing and clothing expenses, and a slight savings in public expenditures appeared on the "benefit" side. The amount of warming examined by DOT is roughly equivalent to what the ground-based monitors suggest the planet has experienced over the last years.

Crafted mostly by internal staff not one of whom had any economics training , the EPA produced few figures, and no quantitative estimates of costs or benefits, failed to even refer to the DOT study of only 12 years earlier, and was littered with qualifications like "could" and "might.

Perhaps the most prominent academic study of the economic consequences of warming was produced by Yale economist William Nordhaus, an informal adviser to the Clinton administration. On the "cost" side, Nordhaus places increased electricity demand, loss of land due to flooding, coastal erosion, and the forced protection of various threatened seaboard properties.

On the "benefits" side, Nordhaus places reductions in demand for nonelectric heat. One of the most extensive treatments of the economic consequences of climate change and climate change abatement was produced by economist William Cline of the Institute for International Economics. Instead of assuming a median — 4. Moreover, Cline includes an extremely low "social" discount rate to calculate the value of future investment. Only by applying arbitrary adjustments after his initial calculations are performed does he find that the benefits of control exceed their cost; but that won't occur, even according to Cline, for at least a century.

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Even more controversial are Cline's allocations of costs and benefits of warming. He finds no benefits whatsoever. Costs are found not only in the traditional places sea level rise, species loss, and moderately increased hurricane activity but also in areas where most economists have found benefits: agricultural productivity, forest yields, overall energy demand, and water demand. The existence of contrary studies is often simply ignored in the document.

Robert Mendelsohn of the Yale School of Forestry and Environmental Studies calculated late last year that a temperature hike of 2. Farming, timber, and commercial energy sectors all benefit, with agriculture enjoying "a vast increase in supply from carbon fertilization. While Moore too finds costs in species loss, sea level rise, increased hurricane activity, and increased tropospheric ozone pollution, he finds moderate benefits in agricultural productivity, forest yields, marine resource availability, and transportation.

Moreover, he argues that major benefits will accrue from reduced energy demand, improved human morbidity, an increase from miscellaneous amenity benefits, lower construction costs, greater opportunities for leisure activities, and increased water supplies.


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There is some historical precedent for optimism regarding the consequences of the median computer model warming scenario. The period AD — AD experienced a sharp and pronounced warming approximately equivalent to that predicted by the median warming scenario; 2. That period is known to climate historians as the Little Climate Optimum. While there were some climatic dislocations such as coastal flooding, there were marked increases in agricultural productivity, trade, human amenities, and measurable improvements in human morbidity and mortality. Only when the climate cooled off at the end of the Little Climate Optimum did trade drop off, harvests fail, and morbidity and mortality rates jump largely due to an increase in diseases, particularly the plague.


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The reason for optimism here is that human civilization was far more weather dependent a millennia ago than it is today. And even our more primitive, weather dependent ancestors appeared to do fairly well during their episodic warming. Assuming even the worst about the consequences of unabated anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions and their economic consequences does not necessarily imply that emissions controls today make more sense than emissions controls tomorrow.

There is no compelling need to act now. According to a recent study by Wigley et al. Why might we want to wait a couple of decades before acting? Breathing has two essential components:.

22.3 The Process of Breathing

The lungs are situated within the ribcage enclosed by two pleural membranes Fig 1. At the base of the thorax, separating it from the abdominal cavity, lies the diaphragm. This is the main muscle of inspiration, and is innervated by the phrenic nerve. The lungs are made up of large and small airways — the trachea being the largest and first of 23 generations of airways.

The Process of Breathing – Anatomy & Physiology

The airways in each generation arise from the previous one by a system of irregular dichotomous branches Davies and Moore, The smaller airways respiratory bronchioles contain alveoli in their walls. Alveoli are the site of gas exchange and their presence increases as the airways become smaller. This allows for the total surface area of the lung to increase exponentially allowing maximum opportunity for gas exchange. Central and peripheral chemo receptors sensitive to hypoxia low O2 levels and hypercapnia increased CO2 control the drive to breathe Davies and Moore, Air naturally moves from an area of high pressure to an area of low pressure.

During normal breathing, inspiration occurs by the contraction and flattening of the diaphragm and the contraction of the external intercostal muscles, causing a rise and outward movement of the ribcage. This increases the size of the thoracic cavity. These changes cause the parietal pleural layer of the lungs to move with the ribcage and diaphragm, creating a negative pressure.