Die Schule (In Ketten 2) (German Edition)

So existiert bis heute eine ununterbrochene Kette der Übermittlung im Weiß der Schüler erst einmal vom ersten kleinen Arkanum und praktiziert die darin Das 1. Kleine Arkanum (German Edition) (German) Paperback – August 2,
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German derives the majority of its vocabulary from the ancient Germanic branch of the Indo-European language family. With slightly different standardized variants German , Austrian and Swiss Standard German , German is a pluricentric language. Like English, German is also notable for its broad spectrum of dialects , with many unique varieties existing in Europe and also other parts of the world. Low German or Plautdietsch [5] are alternatively referred to as "languages" and "dialects".

The Germanic languages are traditionally subdivided into three branches: The first of these branches survives in modern Danish , Swedish , Norwegian , Faroese , and Icelandic , all of which are descended from Old Norse. The East Germanic languages are now extinct, and the only historical member of this branch from which written texts survive is Gothic.

The West Germanic languages, however, have undergone extensive dialectal subdivision and are now represented in modern languages such as English , German, Dutch , Yiddish , Afrikaans , and others.

Organization of the Luftwaffe (–45) - Wikipedia

The various regional dialects spoken south of these lines are grouped as High German dialects nos. This classification indicates their historical descent from dialects spoken by the Irminones also known as the Elbe group , Ingvaeones or North Sea Germanic group , and Istvaeones or Weser-Rhine group.

Standard German is based on Thuringian - Upper Saxon dialects no. German is therefore most closely related to the other languages based on High German dialects, such as Luxembourgish based on Central Franconian dialects — no.

Also closely related to Standard German are the Upper German dialects spoken in the southern German-speaking countries , such as Swiss German Alemannic dialects — no. After these High German dialects, standard German is somewhat less closely related to languages based on Low Franconian dialects e. As has been noted, the former of these dialect types is Istvaeonic and the latter Ingvaeonic, whereas the High German dialects are all Irminonic; the differences between these languages and standard German are therefore considerable.

These Anglo-Frisian dialects are all members of the Ingvaeonic family of West Germanic languages which did not take part in the High German consonant shift. This sound shift involved a drastic change in the pronunciation of both voiced and voiceless stop consonants b , d , g , and p , t , k , respectively. The primary effects of the shift were the following:. While there is written evidence of the Old High German language in several Elder Futhark inscriptions from as early as the 6th century AD such as the Pforzen buckle , the Old High German period is generally seen as beginning with the Abrogans written c.

Following the Abrogans the first coherent works written in OHG appear in the 9th century, chief among them being the Muspilli , the Merseburg Charms , and the Hildebrandslied , as well as a number of other religious texts the Georgslied , the Ludwigslied , the Evangelienbuch , and translated hymns and prayers. Of particular interest to scholars, however, has been the Hildebrandslied , a secular epic poem telling the tale of an estranged father and son unknowingly meeting each other in battle. Linguistically this text is highly interesting due to the mixed use of Old Saxon and Old High German dialects in its composition.

The written works of this period stem mainly from the Alamanni , Bavarian , and Thuringian groups, all belonging to the Elbe Germanic group Irminones , which had settled in what is now southern-central Germany and Austria between the 2nd and 6th centuries during the great migration. In general, the surviving texts of OHG show a wide range of dialectal diversity with very little written uniformity. The early written tradition of OHG survived mostly through monasteries and scriptoria as local translations of Latin originals; as a result, the surviving texts are written in highly disparate regional dialects and exhibit significant Latin influence, particularly in vocabulary.

The German language through the OHG period was still predominantly a spoken language, with a wide range of dialects and a much more extensive oral tradition than a written one. Having just emerged from the High German consonant shift, OHG was also a relatively new and volatile language still undergoing a number of phonetic , phonological , morphological , and syntactic changes.

The scarcity of written work, instability of the language, and widespread illiteracy of the time thus account for the lack of standardization up to the end of the OHG period in While there is no complete agreement over the dates of the Middle High German MHG period, it is generally seen as lasting from to Whereas during the Old High German period the Germanic tribes extended only as far east as the Elbe and Saale rivers, the MHG period saw a number of these tribes expanding beyond this eastern boundary into Slavic territory this is known as the Ostsiedlung.

Along with the increasing wealth and geographic extent of the Germanic groups came greater use of German in the courts of nobles as the standard language of official proceedings and literature. While these efforts were still regionally bound, German began to be used in place of Latin for certain official purposes, leading to a greater need for regularity in written conventions. While the major changes of the MHG period were socio-cultural, German was still undergoing significant linguistic changes in syntax, phonetics, and morphology as well e.

A great wealth of texts survives from the MHG period. Significantly, among this repertoire are a number of impressive secular works, such as the Nibelungenlied , an epic poem telling the story of the dragon -slayer Siegfried c. Also noteworthy is the Sachsenspiegel , the first book of laws written in Middle Low German c. The abundance and especially the secular character of the literature of the MHG period demonstrate the beginnings of a standardized written form of German, as well as the desire of poets and authors to be understood by individuals on supra-dialectal terms.

The Middle High German period is generally seen as ending with the decimation of the population of Europe in the Black Death of — While these states were still under the control of the Holy Roman Empire and far from any form of unification, the desire for a cohesive written language that would be understandable across the many German-speaking principalities and kingdoms was stronger than ever.

As a spoken language German remained highly fractured through this period with a vast number of often mutually-incomprehensible regional dialects being spoken throughout the German states; the invention of the printing press c. One of the central events in the development of ENHG was the publication of Luther's translation of the Bible into German the New Testament in and the Old Testament , published in parts and completed in Copies of Luther's Bible featured a long list of glosses for each region that translated words which were unknown in the region into the regional dialect.

Concerning his translation method Luther says the following:. One who would talk German does not ask the Latin how he shall do it; he must ask the mother in the home, the children on the streets, the common man in the market-place and note carefully how they talk, then translate accordingly. They will then understand what is said to them because it is German. But tell me is this talking German? What German understands such stuff? With Luther's rendering of the Bible in the vernacular German asserted itself against the dominance of Latin as a legitimate language for courtly, literary, and now ecclesiastical subject-matter.

Further, his Bible was ubiquitous in the German states with nearly every household possessing a copy. German was the language of commerce and government in the Habsburg Empire , which encompassed a large area of Central and Eastern Europe. Until the midth century, it was essentially the language of townspeople throughout most of the Empire. Its use indicated that the speaker was a merchant or someone from an urban area, regardless of nationality. Some cities, such as Prague German: Prag and Budapest Buda , German: Ofen , were gradually Germanized in the years after their incorporation into the Habsburg domain.

Others, such as Pozsony German: Pressburg , now Bratislava , were originally settled during the Habsburg period, and were primarily German at that time. Prague, Budapest and Bratislava as well as cities like Zagreb German: Agram , and Ljubljana German: Laibach , contained significant German minorities. In the eastern provinces of Banat and Transylvania German: This dictionary was created by the Brothers Grimm and is composed of 16 parts which were issued between and In , the 2nd Orthographical Conference ended with a complete standardization of the German language in its written form and the Duden Handbook was declared its standard definition.

In Northern Germany, Standard German was a foreign language to most inhabitants, whose native dialects were subsets of Low German. It was usually encountered only in writing or formal speech; in fact, most of Standard German was a written language, not identical to any spoken dialect, throughout the German-speaking area until well into the 19th century. Official revisions of some of the rules from were not issued until the controversial German orthography reform of was made the official standard by governments of all German-speaking countries.

Approximate distribution of native German speakers assuming a rounded total of 95 million worldwide. Due to the German diaspora as well as German being the second most widely spoken language in Europe and the third most widely taught foreign language in the US [11] and the EU in upper secondary education [38] amongst others, the geographical distribution of German speakers or "Germanophones" spans all inhabited continents. As for the number of speakers of any language worldwide, an assessment is always compromised by the lack of sufficient, reliable data.

In Europe, German is the second most widely spoken mother tongue after Russian and the second biggest language in terms of overall speakers after English. The area in central Europe where the majority of the population speaks German as a first language and has German as a co- official language is called the " German Sprachraum ". It comprises an estimated 88 million native speakers and 10 million who speak German as a second language e. Although expulsions and forced assimilation after the two World Wars greatly diminished them, minority communities of mostly bilingual German native speakers exist in areas both adjacent to and detached from the Sprachraum.

In France , the High German varieties of Alsatian and Moselle Franconian are identified as " regional languages ", but the European Charter for Regional and Minority Languages of has not yet been ratified by the government. Namibia was a colony of the German Empire from to Mostly descending from German settlers who immigrated during this time, 25—30, people still speak German as a native tongue today.

Although it is nearly extinct today, some older Namibians still have some knowledge of it. German, along with English and Afrikaans was a co-official language of Namibia from until its independence from South Africa in At this point, the Namibian government perceived Afrikaans and German as symbols of apartheid and colonialism, and decided English would be the sole official language, claiming that it was a "neutral" language as there were virtually no English native speakers in Namibia at that time. Hoffmann , radio the Namibian Broadcasting Corporation produces radio programs in German , and music e.

The Allgemeine Zeitung is one of the three biggest newspapers in Namibia and the only German-language daily in Africa. Mostly originating from different waves of immigration during the 19th and 20th centuries, an estimated 12, people speak German or a German variety as a first language in South Africa.

The South African constitution identifies German as a "commonly used" language and the Pan South African Language Board is obligated to promote and ensure respect for it. In the United States, the states of North Dakota and South Dakota are the only states where German is the most common language spoken at home after English. In Australia , the state of South Australia experienced a pronounced wave of immigration in the s from Prussia particularly the Silesia region. With the prolonged isolation from other German speakers and contact with Australian English , a unique dialect known as Barossa German has developed and is spoken predominantly in the Barossa Valley near Adelaide.

Usage of German sharply declined with the advent of World War I , due to the prevailing anti-German sentiment in the population and related government action. It continued to be used as a first language into the twentieth century but now its use is limited to a few older speakers. German migration to New Zealand in the 19th century was less pronounced than migration from Britain, Ireland, and perhaps even Scandinavia.

Despite this there were significant pockets of German-speaking communities which lasted until the first decades of the 20th century. German-speakers settled principally in Puhoi , Nelson , and Gore. At the last census , 37, people in New Zealand spoke German, making it the third most spoken European language after English and French and overall the ninth most spoken language.

There is also an important German creole being studied and recovered, named Unserdeutsch , spoken in the former German colony of German New Guinea , across Micronesia and in northern Australia i. The risk of its extinction is serious and efforts to revive interest in the language are being implemented by scholars. Like French and Spanish , German has become a classic second foreign language in the western world, as English Spanish in the US is well established as the first foreign language.

Standard German originated not as a traditional dialect of a specific region but as a written language. However, there are places where the traditional regional dialects have been replaced by new vernaculars based on standard German; that is the case in large stretches of Northern Germany but also in major cities in other parts of the country. It is important to note, however, that the colloquial standard German differs greatly from the formal written language, especially in grammar and syntax, in which it has been influenced by dialectal speech.

Standard German differs regionally between German-speaking countries in vocabulary and some instances of pronunciation and even grammar and orthography. This variation must not be confused with the variation of local dialects. Even though the regional varieties of standard German are only somewhat influenced by the local dialects, they are very distinct. German is thus considered a pluricentric language.

In most regions, the speakers use a continuum from more dialectal varieties to more standard varieties according to circumstances. In German linguistics , German dialects are distinguished from varieties of standard German. The varieties of standard German refer to the different local varieties of the pluricentric standard German. They differ only slightly in lexicon and phonology.

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In certain regions, they have replaced the traditional German dialects, especially in Northern Germany. Swiss Standard German is used in the Swiss education system, whereas Austrian Standard German is officially used in the Austrian education system. A mixture of dialect and standard does not normally occur in Northern Germany either. Because their linguistic distance to it is greater, they do not mesh with Standard German the way that High German dialects such as Bavarian, Swabian, Hessian can. German is a member of the West Germanic language of the Germanic family of languages , which in turn is part of the Indo-European language family.

The German dialects are the traditional local varieties; many of them are hardly understandable to someone who knows only standard German, and they have great differences in lexicon , phonology and syntax. If a narrow definition of language based on mutual intelligibility is used, many German dialects are considered to be separate languages for instance in the Ethnologue.

However, such a point of view is unusual in German linguistics. The variation among the German dialects is considerable, with often only neighbouring dialects being mutually intelligible.


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Some dialects are not intelligible to people who know only Standard German. Middle Low German was the lingua franca of the Hanseatic League. It was the predominant language in Northern Germany until the 16th century. In , the Luther Bible was published. The translation is considered to be an important step towards the evolution of the Early New High German. It aimed to be understandable to a broad audience and was based mainly on Central and Upper German varieties. The Early New High German language gained more prestige than Low German and became the language of science and literature.

Around the same time, the Hanseatic League, based around northern ports, lost its importance as new trade routes to Asia and the Americas were established, and the most powerful German states of that period were located in Middle and Southern Germany. The 18th and 19th centuries were marked by mass education in Standard German in schools. Gradually, Low German came to be politically viewed as a mere dialect spoken by the uneducated.

Today, Low Saxon can be divided in two groups: Low Saxon varieties with a reasonable Standard German influx [ clarification needed ] and varieties of Standard German with a Low Saxon influence known as Missingsch. Sometimes, Low Saxon and Low Franconian varieties are grouped together because both are unaffected by the High German consonant shift.

There were also 17 Inspectorates German: These were each the size of an Air Corps and were basic territorial units of the Luftwaffe following its geographical organization. Their headquarters were as given in the table: In addition, Luftkreis VII was established on 12 October with its headquarters at Braunschweig, and is shown incorporated into the above-mentioned table [22]. These included, two or three Luftgaukommandos administrative commands , a signals command, a medical battalion and a procurement and supply group.

Their area of operations also included civilian airfields and Civil Air Defense. The following year, all the replacement battalions in that area also came under their control. In , these were extended to regiment size or Fliegerersatzregimente. From —36, Flak units in the area also came under their command. They were promoted to General der Flieger.

A retired navy officer, Konrad Zander , was similarly promoted and put in charge of Luftkreis VI supporting the naval units. Operationally, the Luftwaffe organization underwent changes in July Luftkreise were consolidated into three Luftwaffengruppenkommandos Airforce Group Commands. This change also rendered the three digit Geschwader identifiers meaningless.

From 1 November , Geschwader identifiers were changed universally. The third digit of the Unit Identifier was replaced with the same digit as its parent Luftwaffengruppenkommando. For example, all units under Luftwaffengruppenkommando 1 headquartered in Berlin , had the third digit of their identifiers replaced with a '1'. By the end of April , another Luftwaffengruppenkommando was added. All four Luftwaffengruppenkommando were renamed Luftflotte Air Fleets. Geschwader under each Luftflotte , were re-numbered sequentially. Each Luftflotte received a batch of For example, Luftflotte 1 Geschwader were numbered 0—25, Luftflotte 2 Geschwader became 26—50 and so on.

Within the Air Ministry, for administration purposes, the Luftwaffe was organized into Luftgaue Air Districts , based on the army's Wehrkreis "military districts". A Luftgau was responsible for all administrative activities, such as training, administration, maintenance, air defense, signals, recruitment and reserve personnel.

Those Luftgaue established within Germany were numbered non-consecutively with Roman numerals. Luftgaue were also established as required in occupied Europe and were named after their location, e. Luftgau Belgien-Nordfrankreich was headquartered in Brussels and responsible for Belgium and northern France. These sections were numbered in Arabic numerals followed by a Luftgau designator.

Flying units used the services of a Luftgau through Flughafenbereichkommandanturen Airfield Regional Commands. Each Luftgau usually had five such commands. Each regional command was divided into five or more Einsatzhafenkommandanturen Operational Airfield Commands. The operational commands were located at the airfields where it serviced the flying units. Operationally under the OKL, all Luftwaffe units were organized into Luftflotte , which were equivalent to an army group.

Its size and number of subordinated units, was flexible and changed depending on need. The Luftflotten were created according to the geographical area. As the Wehrmacht occupied new territories, new Luftflotten were created. Each Luftflotte , had an adjutant or staff officer assisting the commanding officer. Although a Luftflotte could be moved from one area to another by the RLM, the Luftflotte had absolute control over all aspects of aviation in that area, including ground operations.

This also included legal, administration, signals and supply work. They were essentially divided into operational or administrative commands. The signal services consisted of three Luft-Nachrichtenregimenter signals regiments in a Luftflotte. There was also a Fliegerabwehrkanone Flak unit. A Luftflotte was operationally divided into one or more Fliegerkorps "Air Corps" of varying size, depending on its area of operations.

They were responsible for all operational matters such as deployment, air traffic, ordnance and maintenance. A Fliegerkorps could potentially be loaned out to another Luftflotte depending on the nature of the operation. There were a total of 13 Fliegerkorps. Similar to the Luftflotte , each Fliegerkorps had its own geographical area of operations.

It consisted of several Geschwader along with Reconnaissance Gruppen Groups. The Geschwader could be either fighter or bomber units. Depending on the nature or purpose of the Fliegerkorps , it would have only bomber or fighter units. Similar to the Luftflotte , a Fliegerkorps also had an adjutant as well as other departments. However, it did depend on the parent Luftflotte for administrative and supply purposes.

The Fliegerkorps were numbered consecutively in Roman numerals. However, during later reorganizations, most of these were replaced by the Fliegerkorps. Some remained in operation on the Eastern Front. A Jagdkorps was a more specialized version of a Fliegerkorps with limited responsibility to fighter command only. A Jagd-Division was subordinated to a Jagdkorps but specialized in fighter operations. Jagd-Divisionen fighter divisions were active at one point or other during this period. Together the fighter force of Luftwaffe was also called Jagdwaffe.

The Luftwaffe also had specialist divisions for testing new aircraft as well as captured allied machines. It was initially unnumbered and simply called the Lehrdivision Instruction Division but in later years several Erprobungskommando were created to test specific new aircraft. Along with the aircraft, it was also responsible for testing anti-aircraft defenses and air signals equipment. The staff of this division were required to have prior combat experience.

The Lehr units in this division were usually made part of operational units, receiving help from them for testing under combat conditions. This division did not undertake the testing of experimental aircraft. As the war went on, some of the units under its command were used for operational purposes. In the Luftwaffe the largest mobile and autonomous unit was the Geschwader. It would be used for different purposes such as bombing, interception both single and twin engine , ground attack and reconnaissance.

A Geschwader would be named, based on its purpose. They would be named with an Arabic numeral following the word. It was also customary to give an additional title to a Geschwader in honor of a distinguished person. For example, Jagdgeschwader 2 was named Jagdgeschwader 2 Richthofen in honor of Manfred von Richthofen. Each Geschwader was commanded by a Geschwaderkommodore. This person usually had the rank of Oberst equivalent to colonel , Oberstleutnant lieutenant colonel or major. He had a small staff along with an adjutant Staff Officer for operational as well as for administrative purposes.

There would be a Stabschwarm staff schwarm of four aircraft including the Geschwaderkommodore's aircraft. Typically there were three Gruppen groups under each Geschwader and sometimes a fourth or even a fifth gruppe was added to single engine fighter geschwader. On several occasions, day fighter Geschwader or Jagdgeschwader were formed with four Gruppe strength from start.

As the war progressed, the various sub-units of each numbered Geschwader operated separately and often on totally different fronts or theaters of war. The Gruppe was the basic autonomous unit in the Luftwaffe, in both administration and strategic use. Each Gruppe would have a Stabschwarm staff schwarm of three aircraft. The Gruppe would be commanded by a Gruppenkommandeur , that would be a Major or Hauptmann , who would have a small staff including administration, operations, medical and technical officers. A Gruppe usually occupied one airfield. Gruppen from the same Geschwader typically occupied adjacent airfields.

Each would have an air signals platoon, mechanical and administrative personnel. There was also a trained fire-fighting crew doubling as police officers and staffed by the SS. As with the Geschwader , the Gruppe included staff officers tasked with additional administrative duties, usually an adjutant, technical, medical and operations officers. These officers were usually though not always , experienced aircrew or pilots appointed from the operational cadre within the unit. Gruppen organized within a combat geschwader were designated with Roman numerals: This would be combined with the abbreviated Geschwader designation — for example, the second Gruppe of Jagdgeschwader 11 would be designated II.

Each Gruppe in turn consisted of three Staffeln. In total, each Gruppe had 30—40 aircraft including the Gruppenstab. A Gruppe was often transferred from one Geschwader to another.

Organization of the Luftwaffe (1933–45)

After a transfer they would be re-designated. Although all Gruppen in a Geschwader performed the same role, they were not always equipped with the same aircraft. This was more prevalent in fighter Geschwader , but did occur in bomber units as well. Some Gruppen of a fighter Geschwader would be equipped with Messerschmitt Bf s, while others would be equipped with Focke-Wulf Fw s. There were several types of Gruppen acting in specialized autonomous roles, many centered around either reconnaissance or maritime-involved duties.

Other types of Gruppe -sized units of various types existed within the Luftwaffe structure as well:. Each Gruppe comprised three or four Staffeln , but by late a fourth Staffel was usually added to fighter units, making the established strength of the unit approximately 65 to 70 aircraft, although during the war years operational strength tended to fluctuate greatly. Personnel strength varied between 35 and aircrew, and to ground personnel.

During the mid-war years a fourth Gruppe was introduced in many Geschwader , initially as an operational training unit for new aircrew. A Staffel usually had nine to 12 aircraft. Others had as few as five or six aircraft due to losses. Staffeln were numbered consecutively in Arabic numerals within a Geschwader irrespective of the Gruppe they came under. The Staffel designation would be similar to that of the Gruppe except for the Arabic numerals.

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For example, Staffel 6 of Jagdgeschwader 27 would be designated 6. The Staffeln of Gruppe I would be numbered 1, 2 and 3. Those of Gruppe II would be numbered 4, 5 and 6. This was continued for the rest of the Gruppen. When a Staffel was transferred from one group to another or from one Geschwader to another, it would be re-numbered accordingly. The Staffel usually had a few vehicles allocated to it, and a mobile Fliegerhorstkompanie air station company to carry out minor repairs.

These were usually named after and attached to a Geschwader. The number of ground staff varied depending on its type, with about for a fighter unit and 80 in a bomber unit — a smaller number of personnel were required in the bomber units as many of the servicing functions were carried out by attached units provided by the local Luftgau or "Air District". The service test units often known as Erprobungskommando could also be of Staffel or Gruppe organizational size, as well as existing outside of any such "set" unit size as a Gruppe or Staffel - the Heinkel He was service-tested by a Staffel -sized unit, known as Erprobungsstaffel , [35] frequently using the RLM airframe type number for the number of the unit testing the aircraft bearing it.

There were a few types of Staffeln acting in specialized autonomous, or semi-autonomous roles, if integrally attached to a Gruppe or Geschwader for differing duties from the main unit. Some of these were:. Eventually Gruppe -sized Nachtschlachtgruppen were used for the same general purpose as the Soviet units. The Luftwaffe's own harassment aviation units also used similarly obsolete aircraft, but of German design. The Heinkel He 46 , Arado Ar 66 , Focke-Wulf Fw 56 and even the standard training biplane, the Gotha Go , were all deployed in their efforts at attempting to emulate the success of the Soviets.

A few specialized Staffel sized units existed within the Luftwaffe for such specialized tasks as weather observation Wettererkundungsstaffeln , contracted to Wekusta , specialized weaponry a so-called Staffel 92 was meant to be equipped with the cannon-armed Ju 88P -series of bomber destroyer fighters and even outside the actual Luftwaffe, such as aircraft factory-operated defense Staffeln , at least one of which even operated the Me late in the war.

Schwarm , "swarm" , consisting of four to six aircraft. Each bomber Schwarm at full strength, six aircraft was divided into a Kette "chain" of three aircraft. A fighter Schwarm four aircraft was divided into two Rotten singular: And Philipp hates that Marie does not love him. A grumpy old man is confronted with a group of migrant workers and has to challenge his prejudices.

In , toward the end of the Second World War, a group of women and children were massacred by German soldiers in a small Tuscan village. Seventy years later, the German-Italian theatre Jonas, a young doctor is trapped in a hospital of concrete, plastic and metal. A male nurse slowly drags him out of his depression and into a wild, seemingly saving world, in which the past and the present mix into a nightmare.

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