Knowledge and the Curriculum (International Library of the Philosophy of Education Volume 12): A Col

In education, a curriculum is broadly defined as the totality of student experiences that occur in UNESCO's International Bureau of Education has the primary mission of .. Curriculum should consist entirely of knowledge which comes from various .. and Nunavut to Have Input in Albertas K—12 Curriculum Redesign".
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These emerging ecosystems of knowledge will coexist alongside—and compete with—today's colleges and universities. In listening to many conversations about higher education, one could easily perceive that the norm consists of undergraduate students, eighteen to twenty-three years old, at liberal arts colleges. William Clohan, former undersecretary of education and policy advisor to the U.

House of Representatives, recently captured the transformation: Today, these 'non-traditional' students are the majority of the student population in higher education. More than sixty percent of students enrolled are now over twenty-five and more than sixty percent of students are now working full-time while pursuing their education.

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We should start using a new term to describe these students. This changed demographic signals the importance of speaking carefully about the type of educational institution and the particular student needs being addressed. We can no longer generalize from the base and traditional needs of students eighteen to twenty-three years old. This tectonic shift will compel many new conversations and directions in higher education.

These shifts should remind IT professionals to think carefully about the students being served—their backgrounds and needs. To direct and shape services and resources, IT professionals need very targeted and specific understandings. Constant reality checking is also important. Since so much of higher education analysis presumes the eighteen-year-old student, it is easy to become lulled into extrapolating lessons that might not apply at all institutions.

For example, at an institution that focuses on adult learners, an analysis of social media tools for next-generation learners might be well off the mark for the student population.


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Social media tools might still be critical, but in fundamentally different ways. The primary lessons from this fissure are that IT professionals need to know and focus on the particular demographics of their student population and that they need to consider research and policy analysis through the right lenses for the institution. Congress pressed for a "gainful employment" provision, meaning that these unscrupulous for-profits would need to demonstrate that their graduates received sufficient training and education to achieve employment that would allow them to at least cover their loan obligations.

Those at non-profit higher education institutions may find it easy to scoff at for-profits, but there are several indications that all institutions of higher education will begin to face scrutiny about "gainful employment" and the value of a degree in the marketplace. Students at traditional colleges and universities have also taken out sizable loans to complete their studies, and some are failing to land even entry-level jobs that match the skills they have trained for.

This leads to something of a contradiction: The countervailing mood suggests that colleges and universities must clearly prove their value and outcomes. A commonplace assumption since the end of World War II has been that a degree equates to a better job, higher earning potential, and a comfortable middle-class existence. This assumption is being challenged. All higher education institutions will start to develop new metrics and new forms of proof of the value added from their degrees. Specifically, colleges and universities will develop assessments and other metrics—such as the widespread use of pre- and post-testing—that measure the specific impact various coursework has had on students' skill levels and intellectual development.

Using data-mining tools, institutions will start linking their transcripts to wage data records, drawing connections between success at school and success in the workplace. Colleges and universities will track not only the employment success of their students e. Prospective students will compare the career trajectories of graduates of various schools when deciding which institution to attend. College-ranking systems will include these "value-added" scores in addition to other measures.

Part of this reassessment of higher education will center on the value of a degree versus the value of other credentials, such as certificates. In a growing number of fields, a certificate is a perfectly sufficient credential for employment, especially in several "middle-skill" positions. Indeed, students may prefer to collect a succession of certificates over the course of their working lives rather than earn a degree at the start of their working lives.

In this sense, higher education will increasingly consist of just-in-time training over a lifetime, a trend that will affect both admissions and alumni relations. In educational terms, middle-skill jobs require more than a high school diploma but not a full bachelor's degree. Middle-skill jobs are usually identified as those in the skilled trades—occupations that involve building, fixing, making. Some observers have argued that there has been a "hollowing out" of these middle-skill positions, with increasing demand for both high-skill and low-skill jobs, squeezing out the middle-skill trades.

But BLS projections suggest that there will still be a demand for jobs at this middle level, especially as baby boomers retire. Demand will certainly remain for high-skill positions, such as engineers and designers.

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But it is also clear that the value of the skilled trades is rising relative to "symbolic work. This compares with one-third 33 percent of job openings in the high-skill occupational categories and 22 percent in the service occupations," report Harry J. Holzer and Robert I. There will be implications for higher education: Accordingly, accommodating these demands will require increased U. Not only will there need to be a supply of such courses and programs to train these middle-skill workers, but the placement of the pedagogical value of practical skill above theoretical skill could have important consequences for a broad range of curricula, especially general education.

All students might benefit from a curriculum that introduces them to the trades. Camille Paglia has claimed:. We need a sweeping revalorization of the trades. The pressuring of middle-class young people into officebound, paper-pushing jobs is cruelly shortsighted. Concrete manual skills, once gained through the master-apprentice alliance in guilds, build a secure identity.

In a period of global economic turmoil, with manufacturing jobs migrating overseas and service-sector jobs diminishing in availability and prestige, educators whose salaries are paid by hopeful parents have an obligation to think in practical terms about the destinies of their charges. That may mean a radical stripping down of course offerings, with all teachers responsible for a core curriculum. But every four-year college or university should forge a reciprocal relationship with regional trade schools.

More higher education institutions might develop their own colleges of the trades, in addition to colleges of the arts and sciences, business, and engineering. James Duderstadt, the former president of the University of Michigan, once noted that his school had watched its funding from the state diminish so much over the years that it had been "forced to evolve from 'state-supported' to 'state-assisted' to 'state-related' to what might only be characterized as 'state-located.

Some of these institutions, like the University of Michigan, are reaching the stage where they may begin to consider cutting off what is left of state support and functioning instead as a private institution. It is possible that large state institutions, many of which already receive relatively smaller and smaller percentages of their funding from state government sources, will declare financial independence from the state and, as a result, will obtain governing independence as well.

This is part of a much broader trend toward privatization in higher education—meaning, among other things, that the burden of support is increasingly falling on individuals. This has recently been demonstrated in the California system.

Because of its devastating budget situation, which has necessitated increasing tuition system-wide, more individuals are bearing the costs of higher education. This is especially noteworthy when looking at rising textbook prices. Over the past few years, the costs of textbooks have outstripped the rate of tuition increase. For many community college students, textbook prices are often cost-prohibitive, preventing many students from continuing their studies. These prices come as a shock for many parents and students who have attended public schools and for whom textbooks were a public educational technology, like a blackboard or desks and chairs, and thus were part of the overhead of a public education.

#1: The Increasing Differentiation of Higher Education

While we continue to speak about the public benefits of higher education—society needs educated citizens, businesses need trained workers—the costs of these public benefits are increasingly being born by individuals and private entities. Recently, the Wharton School of the University of Pennsylvania announced that it had established a lifelong "knowledge partnership" with graduates of its program.

According to the announcement, all graduates of Wharton will have the opportunity to return for free, one-week executive-training professional development every seven years—in effect, a sabbatical for "alumni. We place "alumni" in quotation marks as a way to signal a newly emerging relationship with matriculated students. Today, when students graduate from an institution, they become "alumni"—former students who are no longer a daily part of the community and who are connected to the college or university largely as a potential funding source.

But more higher education institutions will continue their formal relationships with matriculated students after graduation. Indeed, the degree will not mark the end of the relationship but, rather, the passing of one phase of that relationship to another. Students may seek certificates from a college or university early in their careers, earn a degree or advanced degrees later in their lives, and return periodically for short courses and other professional development opportunities throughout their careers. In effect, the student never leaves or matriculates: This is not just a metaphorical connection; it is an ongoing and active relationship.

Students will pay a lifelong tuition fee to belong to this network and will receive what amounts to "service after the sale" after graduation. When they change jobs and require new skill sets, they will look to their alma mater for continued training. They will seek career counseling and indeed will continue to keep a university-affiliated career counselor "on retainer" throughout their careers. When they retire, many of these students will access their alma maters for cultural and intellectual opportunities that may not have been of interest to them or that they may not have had time for when they were younger.

As they age, the institution will be a source of "brain exercise" just as a membership in a gym provides physical exercise. All of these services will be factored in to the cost of education, which will be extended across a lifetime, not just four to six years. As students find information and knowledge from alternative sources, they will look to their colleges and universities as networks of service and professional relationships.

But focusing strictly on technology trends blinds us to other environmental factors that are drivers for change in higher education. Indeed, these trends will likely have an impact on IT departments. For example, as colleges and universities alter their connections with alumni, developing lifelong relationships and continued service models, these institutions will need more robust tracking tools and metrics to assess their students' career paths.

Invisible college networks will surely require reliable IT platforms. IT professionals will need to reassess pedagogy and curriculum as programming and coding join the roster of general education competencies. Those colleges and universities that understand how to harness and leverage these tectonic shifts in the larger environment will be best positioned to lead disruptive innovation in higher education. Olson and John W. Paradigm Publishers, , p. University of Notre Dame Press, , p. Sternberg, College Admissions for the 21st Century Boston: Harvard University Press, , p.

On perceptions of tenure, see Cary Nelson, "Parents: Princeton University Press, , p. Wagner, The New Invisible College: The curriculum in Japan is determined based on the guidelines for education and the guidelines for learning presented by the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology. When deciding on the curriculum for each school, the school's organizers will decide on the outline by referring to the manuals and explanations prepared by the Education, Science and Technology Ministry and other public offices, and the schools will decide on additional annual plans.

The Courses of Education and Courses of Study are fully revised every 10 years. Before World War II, the curriculum was based on the school regulations corresponding to each school type.

#2: The Transformation of the General Education Curriculum

Primary and secondary education use key objectives to create curricula. For primary education the total number of objectives has been reduced from back in to 58 in All of the objectives have accompanying concrete activities. Also final exams are determined by the OCW and required. Parts of those exams are taken in a national setting, created by a committee: Centrale examencommissie vaststelling opgaven. Furthermore, OCW will determine the number of hours to be spent per subject. Apart from these directives every school can determine its own curriculum.

In , the Nigerian government adopted a national Basic Education Curriculum for grades 1 through 9.

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The policy was an outgrowth of the Universal Basic Education program announced in , to provide free, compulsory , continuous public education for these years. In Sweden since , the primary school curriculum is Lgr 11 , while secondary schools use Lgy The national qualifications include: The National Curriculum was introduced into England , Wales and Northern Ireland as a nationwide curriculum for primary and secondary state schools following the Education Reform Act Notwithstanding its name, it does not apply to independent schools , which may set their own curricula, but it ensures that state schools of all local education authorities have a common curriculum.

Academies , while publicly funded, have a significant degree of autonomy in deviating from the National Curriculum.

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The purpose of the National Curriculum was to standardise the content taught across schools to enable assessment , which in turn enabled the compilation of league tables detailing the assessment statistics for each school. These league tables, together with the provision to parents of some degree of choice in assignment of the school for their child also legislated in the same act were intended to encourage a ' free market ' by allowing parents to choose schools based on their measured ability to teach the National Curriculum.

The Common Core State Standards Initiative CCSSI promulgates a core set of standards which are specific information and skills a student needs to know at each grade level in order to graduate. States may adopt these standards in part or whole and expand upon them.

Schools and states depending on how much control a state gives to its local schools then develop their curriculum to meet each of these standards. This coordination is intended to make it possible to use more of the same textbooks across states, and to move toward a more uniform minimum level of education attainment. As such, states and localities are taking different approaches to implementing the standards and providing their teachers with the supports they need to help students successfully reach the standards. Many educational institutions are currently trying to balance two opposing forces.

On the one hand, some believe students should have a common knowledge foundation, often in the form of a core curriculum; on the other hand, others want students to be able to pursue their own educational interests, often through early specialty in a major, however, other times through the free choice of courses. This tension has received a large amount of coverage due to Harvard University 's reorganization of its core requirements. Many labor economics studies report that employment and earnings vary by college major and this appears to be caused by differences in the labor market value of the skills taught in different majors.

An essential feature of curriculum design, seen in every college catalog and at every other level of schooling, is the identification of prerequisites for each course. These prerequisites can be satisfied by taking particular courses, and in some cases by examination, or by other means, such as work experience. In general, more advanced courses in any subject require some foundation in basic courses, but some coursework requires study in other departments, as in the sequence of math classes required for a physics major, or the language requirements for students preparing in literature, music, or scientific research.

A more detailed curriculum design must deal with prerequisites within a course for each topic taken up. This in turn leads to the problems of course organization and scheduling once the dependencies between topics are known. Core curriculum has typically been highly emphasized in Soviet and Russian universities and technical institutes. At the undergraduate level, individual college and university administrations and faculties sometimes mandate core curricula, especially in the liberal arts. But because of increasing specialization and depth in the student's major field of study, a typical core curriculum in higher education mandates a far smaller proportion of a student's course work than a high school or elementary school core curriculum prescribes.

Amongst the best known and most expansive core curricula programs at leading American colleges and universities are that of Columbia University , as well as the University of Chicago 's.


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Both can take up to two years to complete without advanced standing , and are designed to foster critical skills in a broad range of academic disciplines, including: In , the University of Chicago announced plans to reduce and modify the content of its core curriculum, including lowering the number of required courses from 21 to 15 and offering a wider range of content. When The New York Times , The Economist , and other major news outlets picked up this story, the University became the focal point of a national debate on education.

The National Association of Scholars released a statement saying, "It is truly depressing to observe a steady abandonment of the University of Chicago's once imposing undergraduate core curriculum, which for so long stood as the benchmark of content and rigor among American academic institutions. Four Great Books colleges in the United States follow this approach: Some colleges opt for the middle ground of the continuum between specified and unspecified curricula by using a system of distribution requirements.

In such a system, students are required to take courses in particular fields of learning , but are free to choose specific courses within those fields. Other institutions have largely done away with core requirements in their entirety. Brown University offers the "New Curriculum," implemented after a student-led reform movement in , which allows students to take courses without concern for any requirements except those in their chosen concentrations majors , plus two writing courses. In this vein it is certainly possible for students to graduate without taking college-level science or math courses, or to take only science or math courses.

The Changing Landscape of Higher Education

Amherst College requires that students take one of a list of first-year seminars, but has no required classes or distribution requirements. Similarly, Grinnell College requires students to take a First-Year Tutorial in their first semester, and has no other class or distribution requirements. Wesleyan University is another school that has not and does not require any set distribution of courses. Gender inequality in curricula shows how men and women are not treated equally in several types of curricula. Physical education PE is an example where gender equality issues are highlighted because of preconceived stereotyping of boys and girls.

This is the case in many cultures around the world and is not specific to one culture only. From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. Not to be confused with Curriculum vitae. This section is too long. Consider splitting it into new pages, adding subheadings , or condensing it. Association for Core Texts and Courses. Gender inequality in curricula. Academic advising Body of knowledge CSCOPE education Curriculum studies Educational program Europass Extracurricular activity Hidden curriculum Lesson Lesson plan Lifelong learning Open source curriculum Pedagogy Structure of the disciplines Sudbury schools have no curriculum Syllabus Unschooling emphasizes self-directed learning rather than a curriculum Curricula in early childhood care and education.

Journal for Research in Mathematics Education: Theory and practice pp. The Child and the Curriculum pp. The University of Chicago Press. Towards a Theory of Schooling. The child and the curriculum. Holt, Rinehart, and Winston. Adolescent Involvement in Extracurricular Activities.

Journal of Leadership Education, 11 1 , 84— Reynolds, Patrick Slattery, and Peter M. Visitor experiences and the making of meaning. Science education through informal education. Cultural Studies of Science Education, 1—7. Retrieved November 23, National Curriculum Information Center. Proclamation of the Ministry of Education, Science and Technology: Retrieved 15 April Implications for the Science and Technology Component". Pakistan Journal of Social Sciences. Discussing the Core Curriculum". Archived from the original on 3 July Retrieved 9 February Social Science Research Network.

National Association of Scholars. Archived from the original on 12 April Retrieved 7 February The New York Times. Archived from the original on 4 August Archived from the original on 20 July Retrieved from " https: Articles that may be too long from July Articles using small message boxes All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from January Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the Encyclopedia Americana with a Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with NARA identifiers.