Manual Soft Scale Insects: Their Biology, Natural Enemies and Control: 7A: Soft Scale Insects

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Soft scale insects; their biology, natural enemies and control. World crop pests, 7A. Edited by Y. Ben-Dov and C.J. Hodgson. Series Editor-in-Chief M.W. Sabelis.
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Soft Scale Insects

The secretion of wax from pores creates a very convex shell. The color is pale brownish-yellow, marbled with a slightly darker red tint, with small black spots covering the entire surface. Antennae and legs have six and five segments, respectively. Although antennae and legs have the same number of segments as nymphs, the antennae and legs are reduced in size. Figure 9. Ventral view of adult female, Allokermes kingii Cockerell , a scale.

Hamon described the biology of Allokermes kingii in in Blacksburg, VA. It is univoltine one generation per year in Virginia, but is bivoltine two generations per year in Florida's subtropical climate Turner Allokermes kingii males develop with complete metamorphosis while female Allokermes kingii develop with a simple metamorphosis Hamon et al. In Florida, first generation crawlers emerge in late May Turner After hatching the first instar or crawler remains beneath the parental brood chamber until environmental conditions favor its dispersal.

Females migrate to large branches and males crawl to bark crevices on the tree stem. Crawlers begin to molt into second instars by mid-July. Second instar females migrate to tree wounds or new growth, often near new leaf petioles, become sessile, and secrete a hard, waxy covering over themselves. Second instar males migrate further down on the tree stems, become sessile, and cover themselves with a white, felt-like waxy pupal case test. Second instar females molt to a third instar, which lasts approximately two to four days.

Third instar females become adults from late August to mid-December. Eggs are laid into brood chambers from early September to mid-December. Each female can lay an average of 3, eggs Hamon et al.

Table of Contents

The female's abdomen shrinks after the eggs are laid. Dead females may remain on the host plant for a year or more after first instar emergence Baer Second generation crawlers begin emerging in mid-September and molt into second instars by mid-October. First and second instars overwinter on trees. Scale development appears to slow or stop until the first molt in mid-February. By late April, second instar female Allokermes kingii become mature adults.

A new species of Physokermes Targioni Tozzetti (Hemiptera: Coccoidea: Coccidae) from Greece

Second-generation adult female Allokermes kingii lay eggs until mid-June. Male pre-pupae are present on the bark from early June to mid-October. Pupae occur from May to the end of October. Adult males are present from late May to the end of October. The adult male has non-functioning mouthparts and lives for a few hours to a week.

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Adult females are neotenic, which is a prolonged larval form in a sexually mature organism. After mating with the female the sperm bundles are stored in the oviduct. All records of infestation are reported from Quercus spp. The primary hosts are Quercus borealis and Quercus velutina. Five of the oak species, Quercus geminata , Quercus laurifolia , Quercus phellos , Quercus velutina , and Quercus virginiana occur in Florida.

Allokermes kingii directly affect plant growth by their feeding, which involves the penetration of their stylets into the phloem and the uptake of sap as food Raven , Vranjic The feeding results in branch dieback, reduced tree growth rates, and sooty mold, which grows on the honeydew secreted by the scales Vranjic Tree death may occur during heavy infestations.

Pruning, removal of scales by hand, and destroying infested plant material may minimize infestations. Natural enemies. Several natural enemies attack Allokermes kingii , including ladybird beetles Coleoptera: Coccinellidae , lacewings Neuroptera: Chrysopidae , moth larvae Lepidoptera: Blactobasidae, Cosmopterigidae, Pyralidae , and parasitoids Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae, Ichneumonidae.

Scale management is difficult because the scale is often covered with a protective waxy cover.


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Control methods should be targeted toward the first instar or early second instar. Traditionally, scales have been treated with insecticidal oils as well as a variety of other pesticides. Consult a local Cooperative Extension Service office for current control recommendations. Scale Insects and Mealybugs on Ornamental Plants. Open Preview See a Problem? Details if other :. Thanks for telling us about the problem.

Return to Book Page. Kerriidae and Lecanodiaspididae by Yair Ben-Dov. A Systematic Catalogue of Soft-Scale Insects is a synthesis and catalogue of all the information published on eight families of scale insects Hemiptera: Coccoidea worldwide from to the present. Data is provided on their correct scientific names, common names, synonyms, taxonomy, host plants, distribution, natural enemies, biology, and economic importance.

This book A Systematic Catalogue of Soft-Scale Insects is a synthesis and catalogue of all the information published on eight families of scale insects Hemiptera: Coccoidea worldwide from to the present. This book will be a valuable compendium of biological and systematic information for zoologists, entomologists, crop protection specialists, quarantine officers, students studying entomology and related disciplines, and others who require information about scale insects for research and control projects.

Get A Copy. Kindle Edition , pages. Published November 27th by Elsevier Science first published September 13th More Details