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Table of contents
Most silver is produced as a byproduct of copper , gold, lead , and zinc refining. Silver has long been valued as a precious metal. Silver metal is used in many bullion coins , sometimes alongside gold : [4] while it is more abundant than gold, it is much less abundant as a native metal.
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As one of the seven metals of antiquity , silver has had an enduring role in most human cultures. Other than in currency and as an investment medium coins and bullion , silver is used in solar panels , water filtration , jewellery , ornaments, high-value tableware and utensils hence the term silverware , in electrical contacts and conductors , in specialized mirrors, window coatings, in catalysis of chemical reactions, as a colorant in stained glass and in specialised confectionery. Its compounds are used in photographic and X-ray film. Dilute solutions of silver nitrate and other silver compounds are used as disinfectants and microbiocides oligodynamic effect , added to bandages and wound-dressings, catheters , and other medical instruments.
Silver is similar in its physical and chemical properties to its two vertical neighbours in group 11 of the periodic table , copper and gold. Its 47 electrons are arranged in the configuration [Kr]4d 10 5s 1 , similarly to copper [Ar]3d 10 4s 1 and gold [Xe]4f 14 5d 10 6s 1 ; group 11 is one of the few groups in the d-block which has a completely consistent set of electron configurations. Silver is an extremely soft, ductile and malleable transition metal , though it is slightly less malleable than gold.
Silver crystallizes in a face-centered cubic lattice with bulk coordination number 12, where only the single 5s electron is delocalized, similarly to copper and gold. This observation explains the low hardness and high ductility of single crystals of silver. Silver has a brilliant white metallic luster that can take a high polish , [11] and which is so characteristic that the name of the metal itself has become a colour name. Very high electrical and thermal conductivity is common to the elements in group 11, because their single s electron is free and does not interact with the filled d subshell, as such interactions which occur in the preceding transition metals lower electron mobility.
An exception is in radio-frequency engineering , particularly at VHF and higher frequencies where silver plating improves electrical conductivity because those currents tend to flow on the surface of conductors rather than through the interior. During World War II in the US, tons of silver were used in electromagnets for enriching uranium , mainly because of the wartime shortage of copper.
Silver readily forms alloys with copper and gold, as well as zinc. Zinc-silver alloys with low zinc concentration may be considered as face-centred cubic solid solutions of zinc in silver, as the structure of the silver is largely unchanged while the electron concentration rises as more zinc is added. Increasing the electron concentration further leads to body-centred cubic electron concentration 1.
Naturally occurring silver is composed of two stable isotopes , Ag and Ag, with Ag being slightly more abundant This almost equal abundance is rare in the periodic table. The atomic weight is Twenty-eight radioisotopes have been characterized, the most stable being Ag with a half-life of All of the remaining radioactive isotopes have half-lives of less than an hour, and the majority of these have half-lives of less than three minutes.
Isotopes of silver range in relative atomic mass from The primary decay products before Ag are palladium element 46 isotopes, and the primary products after are cadmium element 48 isotopes. The palladium isotope Pd decays by beta emission to Ag with a half-life of 6.
Iron meteorites are the only objects with a high-enough palladium-to-silver ratio to yield measurable variations in Ag abundance.
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Radiogenic Ag was first discovered in the Santa Clara meteorite in Silver is a rather unreactive metal. Most silver compounds have significant covalent character due to the small size and high first ionization energy Silver does not react with air, even at red heat, and thus was considered by alchemists as a noble metal along with gold. Its reactivity is intermediate between that of copper which forms copper I oxide when heated in air to red heat and gold.
Like copper, silver reacts with sulfur and its compounds; in their presence, silver tarnishes in air to form the black silver sulfide copper forms the green sulfate instead, while gold does not react. Unlike copper, silver will not react with the halogens, with the exception of fluorine gas, with which it forms the difluoride. While silver is not attacked by non-oxidizing acids, the metal dissolves readily in hot concentrated sulfuric acid , as well as dilute or concentrated nitric acid.
In the presence of air, and especially in the presence of hydrogen peroxide , silver dissolves readily in aqueous solutions of cyanide. The three main forms of deterioration in historical silver artifacts are tarnishing, formation of silver chloride due to long-term immersion in salt water, as well as reaction with nitrate ions or oxygen. Fresh silver chloride is pale yellow, becoming purplish on exposure to light; it projects slightly from the surface of the artifact or coin.
The precipitation of copper in ancient silver can be used to date artifacts, as copper is nearly always a constituent of silver alloys.
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Silver metal is attacked by strong oxidizers such as potassium permanganate KMnO 4 and potassium dichromate K 2 Cr 2 O 7 , and in the presence of potassium bromide KBr. These compounds are used in photography to bleach silver images, converting them to silver bromide that can either be fixed with thiosulfate or redeveloped to intensify the original image.
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Silver forms cyanide complexes silver cyanide that are soluble in water in the presence of an excess of cyanide ions. Silver cyanide solutions are used in electroplating of silver.
Silver and gold have rather low chemical affinities for oxygen, lower than copper, and it is therefore expected that silver oxides are thermally quite unstable. Soluble silver I salts precipitate dark-brown silver I oxide , Ag 2 O, upon the addition of alkali. The hydroxide AgOH exists only in solution; otherwise it spontaneously decomposes to the oxide. Some other mixed oxides with silver in non-integral oxidation states, namely Ag 2 O 3 and Ag 3 O 4 , are also known, as is Ag 3 O which behaves as a metallic conductor.
Silver I sulfide , Ag 2 S, is very readily formed from its constituent elements and is the cause of the black tarnish on some old silver objects. The only known dihalide of silver is the difluoride , AgF 2 , which can be obtained from the elements under heat. A strong yet thermally stable and therefore safe fluorinating agent, silver II fluoride is often used to synthesize hydrofluorocarbons.
In stark contrast to this, all four silver I halides are known. The fluoride , chloride , and bromide have the sodium chloride structure, but the iodide has three known stable forms at different temperatures; that at room temperature is the cubic zinc blende structure.
They can all be obtained by the direct reaction of their respective elements. The process is not reversible because the silver atom liberated is typically found at a crystal defect or an impurity site, so that the electron's energy is lowered enough that it is "trapped". White silver nitrate , AgNO 3 , is a versatile precursor to many other silver compounds, especially the halides, and is much less sensitive to light. It was once called lunar caustic because silver was called luna by the ancient alchemists, who believed that silver was associated with the moon.
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The resulting adduct can be decomposed with ammonia to release the free alkene. Yellow silver carbonate , Ag 2 CO 3 can be easily prepared by reacting aqueous solutions of sodium carbonate with a deficiency of silver nitrate. It is reduced with formaldehyde , producing silver free of alkali metals: [41]. Silver carbonate is also used as a reagent in organic synthesis such as the Koenigs-Knorr reaction. It is also employed to convert alkyl bromides into alcohols. Silver fulminate , AgCNO, a powerful, touch-sensitive explosive used in percussion caps , is made by reaction of silver metal with nitric acid in the presence of ethanol.
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Other dangerously explosive silver compounds are silver azide , AgN 3 , formed by reaction of silver nitrate with sodium azide , [42] and silver acetylide , Ag 2 C 2 , formed when silver reacts with acetylene gas in ammonia solution. Silver complexes tend to be similar to those of its lighter homologue copper. Silver III complexes tend to be rare and very easily reduced to the more stable lower oxidation states, though they are slightly more stable than those of copper III. Silver II complexes are more common. Like the valence isoelectronic copper II complexes, they are usually square planar and paramagnetic, which is increased by the greater field splitting for 4d electrons than for 3d electrons.
Under standard conditions, silver does not form simple carbonyls, due to the weakness of the Ag—C bond. For example, the reaction of the bis NHC silver I complex with bis acetonitrile palladium dichloride or chlorido dimethyl sulfide gold I : [48]. Silver forms alloys with most other elements on the periodic table.
The elements from groups 1—3, except for hydrogen , lithium , and beryllium , are very miscible with silver in the condensed phase and form intermetallic compounds; those from groups 4—9 are only poorly miscible; the elements in groups 10—14 except boron and carbon have very complex Ag—M phase diagrams and form the most commercially important alloys; and the remaining elements on the periodic table have no consistency in their Ag—M phase diagrams. By far the most important such alloys are those with copper: most silver used for coinage and jewellery is in reality a silver—copper alloy, and the eutectic mixture is used in vacuum brazing.
The two metals are completely miscible as liquids but not as solids; their importance in industry comes from the fact that their properties tend to be suitable over a wide range of variation in silver and copper concentration, although most useful alloys tend to be richer in silver than the eutectic mixture Most other binary alloys are of little use: for example, silver—gold alloys are too soft and silver— cadmium alloys too toxic. Ternary alloys have much greater importance: dental amalgams are usually silver—tin—mercury alloys, silver—copper—gold alloys are very important in jewellery usually on the gold-rich side and have a vast range of hardnesses and colours, silver—copper—zinc alloys are useful as low-melting brazing alloys, and silver—cadmium— indium involving three adjacent elements on the periodic table is useful in nuclear reactors because of its high thermal neutron capture cross-section , good conduction of heat, mechanical stability, and resistance to corrosion in hot water.
The word "silver" appears in Anglo-Saxon in various spellings, such as seolfor and siolfor. A similar form is seen throughout the Germanic languages compare Old High German silabar and silbir. The Balto-Slavic words for silver are quite similar to the Germanic ones e.
Silver was one of the seven metals of antiquity that were known to prehistoric humans and whose discovery is thus lost to history. The situation changed with the discovery of cupellation , a technique that allowed silver metal to be extracted from its ores.