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Table of contents
In other words, we find causes where we find things that move about, which may only be present in varying degrees. A variable is some subset of a phenomenon that you can have more or less of, as opposed to a constant, which you either have or don't have. That's why they're called variables, because they vary.
There are no such things as theories about constants. Everything in science is about variables. The cause of something is called the independent variable you have more or less of what makes you want to commit crime , and the effect of something is called the dependent variable you engage in crime on a more or less regular basis. This IV-DV relationship is important for two reasons: 1 concomitant variation is the basis for almost all the statistical methods in mathematics; and 2 by focusing upon a relationship of some kind, theories are inherently predictive.
That's because the independent variable motivation to commit crime is taken for granted or treated as a constant everyone is equally possessed of free will.
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Classical criminologists therefore use variables like changes in the law and how that affects crime rates. That's why they are often criminalization or deterrence theorists. It takes the motivation as problematic each person is exposed to a different set of forces that might make them want to commit a crime and then relates that to variable outcomes either generalized or specialized criminal behavior.
That's why positivists are often theorists interested in etiology the causes of crime. Finally, theories can be verified, falsified, or integrated. Verification is the process of testing theories, bit by bit, piece by piece. It's the incremental process of science, moving slowly, going over each and every word the theorist had to say and constructing an hypothesis about it, designing an experiment to test it, carrying out research on it, and reporting the statistical results.
It's the most common procedure for handling theories in criminology, and involves two additional approaches: specification and elaboration. Specification is any effort to figure out the details of a theory especially its dependent variable side, or the effect , how the variables work together; usually associated with a belief that many, competing theories are better than integrated efforts.
Elaboration is any effort to figure out the implications of a theory, what other variables might be added to the theory especially on the independent variable side, or the cause ; often associated with the belief that theory competition is better than theoretical integration Falsification is when the researcher does some of their own thinking, and devises a negative test case or some hypothetical situation which would test exactly what the opposite of what the theory is saying.
It is intended to disprove or prove the theory, or at least some bit of it. Integration doesn't often involve any research at all, although it can with causal modeling and other advanced statistical techniques. Instead, it's usually when the researcher or another theorist combines the similarities or differences between two different theories to construct a bigger theory. This is a surprisingly difficult question to answer. What constitutes crime varies from culture to culture, and from time to time. Criminals have been various things to different people throughout time -- heroes, villains, fools, revolutionaries, deviants, scumbags.
Criminologists try to be scientifically objective and open-minded, however, rather than succumb to popular definitions. It's an important part of what makes criminology a science other than its research and research methods. Some people regard the definitional problem as the most important task in criminology. Although this isn't suitable for criminologists of the criminal law who take law as problematic , it's by far the most common approach in criminology, and it makes the field inherently conservative.
It's associated with the arguments made in by Paul Tappan "Who is the Criminal? The legalistic approach in criminology believes in the same principles of criminal law culpability or criminal intent, mala in se versus mala prohibita, and responsibility or justifications and excuses. Every group one belongs to, regardless of political boundaries, regardless of embodiment in law, has conduct norms.
Norms are the unspoken rules of right normal and wrong abnormal that are contained in custom, tradition, ethics, religion, family, and other social institutions. The importance of the Sellin definition is that it frees criminologists as scientists to define their own subject matter. Press although there are other influences. To Sutherland and to most criminologists , it is clearly unfair that white collar criminals get off with civil fines rather than criminal punishments.
Corporations that pollute the environment have to pay a million dollar penalty nothing more than a slap on the wrist to them while someone who shares a marijuana cigarette with a friend gets 6 years in prison for trafficking quite a lengthy restriction of liberty. Criminologists adhering to this sense of unfairness tend to believe that crime is any socially harmful act or analogous social injury, whether legally permissible or not.
In this view, crime includes untimely death, illness or disease, deprivation of food, shelter, clothing, medical care, racism, sexism, and tobacco, etc. For the Schwendingers, not only anything that causes social injury imperialism, sexism, racism, poverty is crime, but also anything that thwarts the right to a dignified human existence freedom of movement, free speech, a good education, employment, the right to unionize, life, liberty, happiness, and so on.
The concept of human rights has the advantage of cutting across cultures and over time.
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The norms can originated from any source; religion, political belief, etiquette, fashion, or criminal law. In fact, deviance occurs whenever there is stigmatization, isolation, rejection, segregation, punishment, treatment, or rehabilitation. Social control can be coercive forceful , normative attitudinal , or an exchange solution sets of rewards and incentives. Deviance is in the eye of the beholder. Law is but one form of social control, a coercive, governmental solution.
The term "criminalization" refers to the process whereby criminal law is selectively applied to certain behaviors, and many criminalization specialists adhere to a deviance and social control viewpoint, asking the question if criminalization is a neutral process or if it serves the interests of the powerful.
Other forms of social control are sometimes studied, like dispute resolution, mediation, therapeutic, counseling, rehabilitation, reconciliation, restitution self-help, avoidance, negotiation, settlement, and toleration. Deviance and social control specialists tend to focus on distinguishing kinds of acts contextual explanations from kinds of people compositional explanations. Those who adhere to a compositional explanation used to be called social pathologists, and study the three D's delinquent, defective, and dangerous classes , but they are a dying breed.
The social problems approach tries to avoid "reductionism", or explaining crime by virtue of any one explanation, biological, psychological, or even sociological. It tends to look at the social meanings, or collective definitions, of crime.
It therefore closely studies things like media polls or public opinion. Media portrayals, images of crime, and the measurement of crime are serious concerns to social problems specialists, although they wouldn't call themselves specialists because they are anti-specialists, among other things, in adhering to the principles outlined in a little book called The Sociological Imagination by C. In that book, some of the most important principles are: never infer value from fact; remember that a social problem, or issue, is trans-jurisdictional, not a local trouble; imagine micro-macro links; and keep a playfulness of mind pure reason limits freedom in shifting from levels of abstraction no grand theory and no abstracted empiricism either.
Few scholars do, but there are some similarities between theology and criminology worth noting. One of these is theodicy the study of suffering which has many similarities to a social harm approach. Another is the similarity between criminal intent mens rea, or guilty mind and evil mind. Although the Gluecks a famous husband and wife research team of criminologists at Harvard during , among others, pretty much pointed out the futility of the evil causes evil fallacy, the fact remains that the law imputes a certain amount of blameworthiness that resembles the imputation of evil.
There are other similarities we need not go into. It's not really an important area of study in criminology. To the best of my understanding, there are things called oscillators and attractors, the former referring to what a time-series analysis of crime rates would look like if plotted on a three-dimensional graph, the latter referring to laws or social control mechanisms that produce nonlinear effects indicating more or less steady states of chaos randomness. Criminology adheres to the natural science model, trying to be like Biology, Chemistry, or Physics.
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Criminal justice adheres to the social science model, and is more receptive to disciplines like business, the arts, and humanities. Criminology borrows heavily from philosophy, psychology and sociology. Criminal justice borrows heavily from administrative public policy and lay sciences like police science or investigative science. Criminology has many theories, some of which conflict with one another. Criminal justice has very few theories. Many criminologists are hard-core, Vienna-school measurable concepts only , logical positivists Williams The most hard-core "numbers crunchers", or quantitative criminologists, dominate the top journals.
Even qualitative researchers are starting to use computers with software programs like NUDist and so forth. Criminal justice research operates by serendipity, and by going on "fishing expeditions" for topics to study. Academic criminology is essentially a discursive discipline based on talk between its practitioners. Academic criminal justice is essentially ideological factionalization.
Both fields suffer from the Wozzle Effect where unique terms lose their unique meaning and Obliteration By Incorporation where unique contributors are lost , aka the Matthew Effect. Criminal justice is ascending vis-e-vis criminology because of its system focus and financial support. Theories in criminology may devolve into "theories of the system" that emphasize pragmatic efficiency, reification of social control, and political falsifiability.
Now, more than ever, we need to increase our criminological IQ. Most policy-making in criminal justice is based on criminological theory, whether the people making those policies know it or not. In fact, most of the failed policies what doesn't work in criminal justice are due to misinterpretation, partial implementation, or ignorance of criminological theory.
Much time and money could be saved if only policymakers had a thorough understanding of criminological theory. At one time, criminological theory was rather pure and abstract, with few practical implications, but that is not the case anymore. For example, almost all criminologists today use a legalistic rather than normative definition of crime. A legalistic definition of crime takes as its starting point the statutory definitions contained in the penal code, legal statutes or ordinances.
A crime is a crime because the law says so. Sure, there are concerns about overcriminalization too many laws and undercriminalization not enough laws , but at least on the surface, a legalistic approach seems practical. It is also advantageous to a normative definition, which sees crime as a violation of norms social standards of how humans ought to think and behave , although there are times when criminology can shed light on norms and norm violators. Every criminological theory contains a set of assumptions about human nature, social structure, and the principles of causation, to name a few , a description of the phenomena to be explained facts a theory must fit , and an explanation, or prediction, of that phenomenon.
The assumptions are also called meta-theoretical issues, and deal with debates like those over free will v. The description is a statistical profile, figure, diagram, or table of numbers representing the patterns, trends, and correlates of the type of crime taken as an exemplar most appropriate example of all crime. The explanation is a set of variables things that can be tweaked or changed arranged in some kind of causal order so that they have statistical and meaningful significance. Criminological theories are primarily concerned with etiology the study of causes or reasons for crime , but occasionally have important things to say about actors in the criminal justice system, such as police, attorneys, correctional personnel, and victims.
There are basically thirteen 13 identifiable types of criminological theory, only three 3 of which are considered "mainstream" or conventional criminology strain, learning, control. The oldest theory biochemistry goes back to and the last four theories left realism, peacemaking, feminist, postmodern have only developed in the past twenty-five years.
The following table illustrates, with more information about each theory below the table: Theory Causes Policy heredity, vitamin deficiency, allergy, tumor, 1.