Outside Intervention A stage play in two acts Characters in order of appearance: Narrator/Interpreter. Alien Commander. Alien Attendants, two. Dottie, an old.
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Her declared solution was to imitate the "laudable" deeds of women in Terence's plays and discard the "shameless" ones. Hrosvitha was followed by Hildegard of Bingen d. The anonymous pagan play Querolus , written c. Other secular Latin plays were also written in the 12th century, mainly in France but also in England Babio. There certainly existed some other performances that were not fully fledged theatre; they may have been carryovers from the original pagan cultures as is known from records written by the clergy disapproving of such festivals.
It is also known that mimes, minstrels, bards, storytellers, and jugglers traveled in search of new audiences and financial support. Not much is known about these performers' repertoire and few written texts survive. One of the most famous of the secular plays is the musical Le Jeu de Robin et Marion , written by Adam de la Halle in the 13th century, which is fully laid out in the original manuscript with lines, musical notation, and illuminations in the margins depicting the actors in motion. Adam also wrote another secular play, Jeu de la Fueillee in Arras , a French town in which theatre was thriving in the late 12th and 13th centuries.
As the Viking invasions ceased in the middle of the 11th century A. Only in Muslim-occupied Spain were liturgical dramas not presented at all. Despite the large number of liturgical dramas that have survived from the period, many churches would have only performed one or two per year and a larger number never performed any at all. The Feast of Fools was especially important in the development of comedy. The festival inverted the status of the lesser clergy and allowed them to ridicule their superiors and the routine of church life.
Sometimes plays were staged as part of the occasion and a certain amount of burlesque and comedy may have entered the liturgical drama as a result of its influence. Performance of religious plays outside of the church began sometime in the 12th century through a traditionally accepted process of merging shorter liturgical dramas into longer plays which were then translated into vernacular and performed by laymen and thus accessible to a wider segment of society inclusive of the working class.
The use of vernacular enabled drama to be understood and enjoyed by a larger audience. The Mystery of Adam gives credence to this theory as its detailed stage direction suggest that it was staged outdoors. Economic and political changes in the High Middle Ages led to the formation of guilds and the growth of towns, and this would lead to significant changes for theatre starting in this time and continuing into in the Late Middle Ages.
Trade guilds began to perform plays, usually religiously based, and often dealing with a biblical story that referenced their profession. For instance, a baker's guild would perform a reenactment of the Last Supper. These vernacular " mystery plays " were written in cycles of a large number of plays: York 48 plays , Chester 24 , Wakefield 32 and Unknown A larger number of plays survive from France and Germany in this period and some type of religious dramas were performed in nearly every European country in the Late Middle Ages. Many of these plays contained comedy , devils , villains and clowns.
The majority of actors in these plays were drawn from the local population. For example, at Valenciennes in , more than roles were assigned to 72 actors. Often providing their own costumes, amateur performers in England were exclusively male, but other countries had female performers. The platform stage, which was an unidentified space and not a specific locale, allowed for abrupt changes in location. Morality plays emerged as a distinct dramatic form around and flourished until The Castle of Perseverance which depicts mankind 's progress from birth to death. Though Everyman may possibly be the best known of this genre, it is atypical in many ways.
Everyman receives Death 's summons, struggles to escape and finally resigns himself to necessity. Along the way, he is deserted by Kindred , Goods , and Fellowship - only Good Deeds goes with him to the grave. Secular drama was also staged throughout the Middle Ages, the earliest of which is The Play of the Greenwood by Adam de la Halle in It contains satirical scenes and folk material such as faeries and other supernatural occurrences. Farces also rose dramatically in popularity after the 13th century. The majority of these plays come from France and Germany and are similar in tone and form, emphasizing sex and bodily excretions.
However, farce did not appear independently in England until the 16th century with the work of John Heywood — A significant forerunner of the development of Elizabethan drama was the Chambers of Rhetoric in the Low Countries.
Their plays were performed in the great hall of a nobleman's residence, often with a raised platform at one end for the audience and a "screen" at the other for the actors. Also important were Mummers' plays , performed during the Christmas season, and court masques. These masques were especially popular during the reign of Henry VIII who had a house of revels built and an office of revels established in Depending on the area of the performances, the plays were performed in the middle of the street, on pageant wagons in the streets of great cities this was inconvenient for the actors because the small stage size made stage movement impossible , in the halls of nobility , or in the round in amphitheatres, as suggested by current archaeology in Cornwall and the southwest of England.
The most detailed illustration of a mystery play stage design is the frontispiece to Hubert Cailleau 's The Passion and Resurrection of the Savior. All medieval stage production was temporary and expected to be removed upon the completion of the performances. Actors, predominantly male, typically wore long, dark robes. Medieval plays such as the Wakefield cycle, or the Digby Magdalene featured lively interplay between two distinct areas, the wider spaces in front of the raised staging areas, and the elevated areas themselves called, respectively, the locus and the platea.
Scenery, stage machinery and costumes enabled a more realistic depiction of the message the play was trying to promote. Changing political and economic factors greatly affected theatre at the end of the Middle Ages and beginning of the Modern Era. First, the Protestant Reformation targeted the theatre, especially in England, in an effort to stamp out allegiance to Rome.
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In Wakefield , for example, the local mystery cycle text shows signs of Protestant editing, with references to the pope crossed out and two plays completely eliminated because they were too Catholic. However, it was not just the Protestants who attacked the theatre of the time.
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The Council of Trent banned religious plays in an attempt to rein in the extrabiblical material that the Protestants frequently lampooned. A revival of interest in ancient Roman and Greek culture changed the tastes of the learned classes in the performing arts.
Greek and Roman plays were performed and new plays were written that were heavily influenced by the classical style. This led to the creation of Commedia dell'arte and influenced Renaissance theatre. A change of patronage also caused drastic changes to the theatre. In England the monarch and nobility started to support professional theatre troupes including Shakespeare's Lord Chamberlain's Men and King's Men , which catered to their upper class patrons' tastes.
Finally, the construction of permanent theaters, such as The Theatre signaled a major turning point. Permanent theaters allowed for more sophisticated staging and storytelling. This will eliminate any notions of the ruling class and the theatre solely portraying their ideals while the audience members are the passive victims of those images. This way the spectators no longer delegate power to the characters either to think or act in their place. They free themselves; they think and act for themselves. Boal supports the idea that theatre is not revolutionary in itself but is rehearsal of revolution.
During the development of Theatre of the Oppressed, Boal worked with many populations and tried many techniques. These techniques eventually coalesced into different theatrical styles, each using a different process to achieve a different result. Boal often organized these theatrical systems as a tree, with images, sounds and words as the roots, games, Image Theatre and Forum Theatre ascending up the trunk, and then other techniques represented as limbs stemming from these. Image theatre is a performance technique in which one person, acting as a sculptor, moulds one or more people acting as statues, using only touch and resisting the use of words or mirror-image modelling.
Boal claims this form of theatre to be one of the most stimulating because of its ease of enactment and its remarkable capacity of portraying thought in a concrete form due to the absence of language idiom. Each word has a denotation common for all as well as a connotation that is unique for each individual.
Medieval theatre
Each will have his own interpretation of "revolution", and to demonstrate such idea provides a clearer understanding of their intention in definition when shown rather than told. For instance, one can "embrace" another in many ways in a tight, harassing manner or a loose soft manner , however the word has the same definition of clasping another person in the arms. While practicing in South America earlier in his career, Boal would apply 'simultaneous dramaturgy '. In this process, the actors or audience members could stop a performance, often a short scene in which a character was being oppressed in some way for example, a typically chauvinist man mistreating a woman or a factory owner mistreating an employee.
In early forms of 'simultaneous dramaturgy', the audience could propose any solution, by calling out suggestions to the actors who would improvise the changes on stage. Forum Theatre was essentially born from 'simultaneous dramaturgy.
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The audience were now encouraged to not only imagine change but to actually practise that change, by coming on stage as 'spect-actors' to replace the protagonist and act out an intervention to "break the oppression. Thus, Boal's current manifestation of Forum theatre is as follows: After reaching the scripted conclusion, in which the oppressed character s fail to overturn their oppression, the actors begin the production again, although often in a condensed form.
At any point during this second performance, any spect-actor may call out "stop! If and when the oppression has been overthrown by the spect-actors, the production changes again: In this way a more realistic depiction of the oppression can be made by the audience, who are often victims of the oppression. The whole process is designed to be dialectic , coming to a conclusion through the consideration of opposing arguments, rather than didactic , in which the moral argument is one-sided and pushed from the actors with no chance of reply or counter-argument.
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Boal clarifies that this practice is not intended to show the correct path, but rather to discover all possible paths which may be further examined. The theatre itself is not revolutionary; but it offers a chance to rehearse for revolution. The spectators learn much from the enactment even though the acting is fiction, because the fiction simulates real-life situations, problems, and solutions. It stimulates the practice of resistance to oppression in reality, and offers a "safe space" for practicing making change. When faced in reality with a similar situation they've rehearsed in theatre, participants who have experienced Forum Theatre ideally will desire to be proactive, and will have the courage to break oppressive situations in real life, since they feel much more prepared and confident in resolving the conflict.
Another way of thinking about it is that rehearsing the actions helps spectactors to develop their own courage and makes them desire action for change in real life. The practice of this form creates an uneasy sense of incompleteness that seeks fulfillment through real action. Invisible theatre is a form of theatrical performance that is enacted in a place where people would not normally expect to see one—for example in the street or in a shopping centre.
The performers attempt to disguise the fact that it is a performance from those who observe and who may choose to participate in it, encouraging the spectators or rather, unknowing spect-actors to view it as a real event. A system of techniques devised to give the audience a way to transform daily news articles or any non-dramatic pieces to theatrical scene. The strategies are as follows Wardrip-Fruin, Rainbow of Desire is a technique and also a family of techniques explained by Boal in his book of the same name.
Rainbow techniques stem from Image theatre and tend to focus on forms of internalized oppression played out by a protagonist in relation to an antagonist. While in his earlier work Boal eschewed the use of Theatre of the Oppressed as " drama therapy ", he later began to espouse these more introspective techniques as a form of "theatre and therapy. When Boal was a Vereador city councilman in Rio de Janeiro, he created a new form of theatre called "legislative theatre" to give his voters the opportunity to voice their opinions. The objective is to open up a dialogue between citizens and institutional entities so that there is a flow of power between both groups.
Boal calls this type of legislative process a "transitive democracy," which lies in between direct democracy practiced in ancient Greece and delegate democracy. Spect-actors may take the stage and express their opinions, thereby helping with the creation of new laws.
Some 13 laws were created through legislative theatre during Boal's time in government. The technique has since been used overseas in countries including Canada and the United Kingdom. A story is told by one of the participants and immediately the actors improvise it. Afterward each character is broken down into their social roles and the participants are asked to choose a physical object to symbolize each role.
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For instance for one community the symbol for the head of the family may be a piggy bank, since that individual is the one who controls the finances power. Having analyzed the characters, a fresh attempt to tell the story is made, however this time removing some of the symbols from each character, and consequently some social roles as well. For example, the story would be perceived differently if the robber had the police uniform and the hostage possessed a revolver.
Through this method, the participants will realize that human actions are not the exclusive and primitive result of human psychology; the individual speaks of their class as well. Boal explains that the technique of breaking repression involves asking the participant to remember a particular moment when he or she felt especially repressed, accepted it, and submitted to act in a manner contrary to his or her own desires.
It is necessary, he explains, that the choice is a particular incident rather than a general sense of oppression. The participant describes that incident, which is then reconstructed and re-enacted with other participants of his choosing. This performance is repeated, except that this time the repressed is asked to fight to impose his or her will while the others involved are invited to maintain the repression. The conflict that results helps to measure the possibility one has to resist in situations where one fails to do so, as well as to measure the true strength of the enemy.
Having rehearsed a resistance to oppression prepares the individual to resist effectively in similar situations that may be encountered in the future. Boal states that the process to be realized in doing this type of theater is the one that ascends from the phenomenon toward the law; from the phenomena presented in the plot toward the social laws that govern those phenomena.