Editorial Reviews. Review. “A truly wonderful book, this collection brings together an African American Urban History since World War II (Historical Studies of Urban America) - Kindle edition by Kenneth L. Kusmer, Kenneth L. Kusmer, Joe W.
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- African American Urban History since World War II
- Becky Nicolaides and Andrew Wiese
- New PDF release: West Yellowstone (Images of America) - trovicor E-books
- Works (42)
Along Whittier Boulevard—which traversed the suburbs of Montebello, Pico Rivera, and Whittier, outside of Los Angeles, Mexican-American youth developed a cruising culture tied to the use of suburban public space. Suburban politics after came to reflect these differences as well, revealing political leanings as varied as suburbanites themselves.
African American Urban History since World War II
One powerful strand worked to sustain suburban privilege. The solid tradition of tax-averse homeowner politics remained strong, and in the post-civil rights era, white suburbanites, especially, increasingly deployed a discourse of colorblind meritocratic individualism to defend their rights, claiming that suburbs were open equally to all and race and class played no role in who lived where. Suburban citizens framed these efforts in terms of their hard-earned rights as taxpaying homeowners, which they felt were under siege by free-spending liberals, minorities, the urban poor, inefficient government, and even drug pushers.
This political agenda manifested in several ways. One was a full-fledged tax revolt movement. In , California taxpayers resoundingly passed Proposition 13, a measure that placed severe limits on property tax rates. This campaign led the way for similar tax revolts in other states and helped propel former California governor, Ronald Reagan, a fervent supporter of Prop 13, to the White House in Reagan embraced many of the core principles of this campaign—cutting taxes and government power—suggesting the national resonance of suburban political ideals.
Across the country, suburbanites mobilized against busing for school integration, open housing, affordable housing, and Section 8 tenants. During the Richard Nixon presidency, for instance, the Federal government limited its support for fair housing, metropolitan school integration, and the dispersal of affordable housing. In the wake of civil rights laws that broke down explicit racial barriers in the housing market, suburban exclusion increasingly pivoted on class, fueling class segregation since While housing and civil rights activists recognized this trend as early as the s, it intensified over the following decades.
These local initiatives were pushed not only by whites, but also some affluent Asian Americans who recognized value in suburban exclusivity. By harnessing the power of local government, suburbanites maintained exclusionary practices using new tools and approaches. This suburban outlook continued to influence the political parties and their agendas at the national level. For the Democrats, this adjustment was enormous, forcing the party to recalibrate its traditional commitment to the urban poor, minorities, and labor and their demand for public programs , with a new commitment to middle-class suburban voters and their aversion to taxes and social welfare spending, and their reluctance to imperil their own property values.
Parallel to this suburban politics of defensive self-interest, a contrasting strand of progressive, social justice politics grew in the suburbs, particularly those experiencing ethno-racial change. It focused on Maywood, California, southeast of Los Angeles, a suburb of working-class Latino immigrants including the undocumented who claimed rights by virtue of inhabitance in particular places. The cumulative effects of suburban expansion since ranged from the toll on the environment, to the fiscal drain on both cities and outer suburbs, to the stubborn persistence of class and race segregation, to the everyday burdens of long commutes and social isolation and stimulated a wave of reform.
Initiatives were wide ranging, some winning more public favor than others. All of these efforts sought to mitigate the effects of suburban sprawl through more equitable, diverse, and sustainable forms of metropolitan development. Some of these initiatives stemmed from the growing recognition that metropolitan areas had become the drivers of the national—and global—economy.
Scholars like Bruce Katz, Mark Muro, and Jennifer Bradley argue that the stakes are high when it comes to metropolitan well-being because they compete against other global metropolises in a race for capital and investment. Because the national economy hinges on vibrant, high-functioning metros, they contend, the federal government must reorient its economic development policies toward enhancing their power and resources e. Other regional reformers extend this logic, arguing that metro-wide equity is crucial to metropolitan health and competitiveness in the global marketplace.
Recognizing the negative effects of suburban political balkanization, which gives individual suburban municipalities the powers to act in their own narrow self-interest and veto wider social obligations, these reformers sought ways to overcome this suburban intransigence. They crafted programs that operated on a regional scale and emphasized the mutual benefits to all metropolitan players, suburban and urban alike, with regional equity and prosperity as the intertwined end goals.
Urban analysts such as David Rusk, Myron Orfield, Peter Dreier, Manuel Pastor, and Chris Benner argued that metropolitan regions work best when class disparities are lessened, poverty is reduced, and communities across the board share both the benefits like jobs and obligations like affordable housing of metropolitan citizenship.
A number of recent studies have indicated that problem-ridden cities and declining suburbs go hand in hand. In other words, suburban islands of prosperity cannot exist in a sea of poverty. For the good of all metropolitan players e. One plan to level the metropolitan playing field was proposed by legislator and legal scholar Myron Orfield, based on initiatives he spearheaded in Minneapolis—St.
Paul during his term in the Minnesota State Legislature — All suburbs, he argued, served to benefit from greater regional equity. To achieve this, he called for regional tax-base sharing that would lessen wasteful competition among suburbs and gradually equalize their resources, provide regionally coordinated planning of housing and infrastructure, and facilitate the formation of strong, accountable regional governing bodies. Seeking to stop the relentless push of outward sprawl, it supports higher-density, mixed-use developments closer to existing communities and job centers, metro growth boundaries, the preservation of open space for parks, farmland, and native habitat, and in-fill projects.
The rationale is to move away from wasteful and environmentally draining sprawl toward denser, more environmentally sustainable development. Other regions followed with similar legislation, including Minneapolis—St. It is a transit-oriented development that combines apartments including 15 percent affordable units , retail, restaurants, and a plaza, all adjacent to a Metro station. An influential off-shoot of Smart Growth is New Urbanism, a movement of designers, architects, developers, and planners which coalesced in the late s.
Smart Growth and New Urbanism are not without their critics. Some decry their tendency to promote gentrification, drive housing prices upward, and insufficiently provide for low-income residents. Because Smart Growth often limits the amount of developable land, it tends to help established homeowners by driving up their property values, while locking everyone else out.
Smart Growth pioneer Portland, Oregon, for example, landed at the top of recent lists on metro areas with accelerating gentrification. Ringed by strict growth boundaries, the city became denser and housing prices and rents spiked, fueling gentrification. The trend hit the African American community especially hard. In recent years, the suburbs came under a new round of criticism, this time perhaps the harshest yet. The alarm was justifiably stoked by the Great Recession of —, which devastated millions of American families who lost their homes to foreclosure, or saw their suburban home values plummet.
Many questioned the wisdom of home ownership, which in turn cast doubt on the viability of suburbia altogether. Writers like Gallagher contended this was the end of the line for the suburbs. Americans were finally turning their backs on the form, reversing a long history of sprawling development.
Yet different trends suggested otherwise. Immigrants, young families, seniors emotionally attached to their homes, and others continued gravitating toward suburban homeplaces, for a host of reasons—whether good schools, nostalgia, ethnic familiarity, jobs, or few good alternatives.
Recent data suggests a return of suburban growth, after a post-recession slowdown. The historical scholarship of post suburbia has flourished in recent decades, pushing the boundaries of urban history scholarship. A foundational text is Kenneth T. The Suburbanization of the United States , which provided the first comprehensive overview of American suburban history. Adopting a definition of suburbia that emphasized their white, affluent, and middle-class character, Jackson surveyed the major stages of suburban development, starting with the elite 19th-century romantic suburbs, then tracing the gradual democratization of the form from streetcar and automobile suburbs to postwar mass-produced suburbs.
While Jackson identified the broad forces that underlay this evolution, his emphasis on federal policy was a seminal contribution, outlining how Washington, D. The results were devastating for cities and the minorities and poor left behind. Along with Robert Fishman in Bourgeois Utopias , Jackson established a normative portrait of suburbs as residential spaces of affluent white privilege.
In a year retrospective on Crabgrass Frontier , Dianne Harris noted that because the book established a clear set of characteristics for the suburbs i. Like others before them, these works often took a local focus, digging deeply into the culture, architecture, politics, and institutions of specific suburban sites. Other scholars pushed the boundaries of analysis, both geographically and demographically. Since , Thomas Sugrue, Robert Self, Matthew Lassiter, and Kevin Kruse have produced influential works that investigated the ways suburbs proactively created and protected advantage—in the realms of business growth, politics from conservative to centrist , wealth, and infrastructure—establishing enduring patterns of metropolitan inequality.
Scholars have also explored the role of metropolitan spaces producing social distinctions such as race, gender, and sexuality. From the early postwar years, activist scholars such as Robert Weaver, Charles Abrams, and Clement Vose pioneered a large body of literature documenting discrimination in housing and the disadvantages of racial segregation in U. In the s and s, scholars extended these insights, exploring the social and spatial production of inequality in metropolitan contexts.
Feminist scholars such as Dolores Hayden illuminated the ways that separate and unequal assumptions about gender were built into the spaces of postwar suburbia. Another current of analysis pushed demographic boundaries, challenging the assumption that suburbs were white, middle class by definition. They argued for a more expansive profile that incorporated class, race, and ethnic diversity.
They identified distinct lifeways, cultures, and politics that in some cases stood apart from mainstream white suburbs, though in others replicated their class-driven concerns in the postwar period. This focus on diverse suburbia carried forward in studies of the post era. This work offers some of the most robust challenges to the trope of suburbia as the domain of white middle-class privilege. This approach reflects not only a revisionist analytical perspective but also the changing realities of life in suburbs where immigrants, ethnic groups, racial minorities, and the poor have had time to settle in.
Geographers and demographers began by mapping out changing demographic patterns in metropolitan areas, establishing a critical baseline for qualitative scholarship. An early focus was on ethnic suburbs. Pioneering studies by Timothy Fong, Leland Saito, and John Horton explored the explosive racial politics that erupted in Monterey Park, California, when it transitioned from all-white to multiethnic, while scholars like Wei Li and Min Zhou theorized new models of race and space around processes of ethnic suburban settlement.
These studies explored the nature and implication of settlement patterns, spatial practices, transnational connections, political and cultural practices, and internal community dynamics. This latest wave of scholarship, perhaps more than any, offers bold alternatives to the orthodox narrative, recognizing in suburbia multiple politics, culture, lifeways, and values which reflect the outlook of their diverse inhabitants.
Historical sources on postwar suburbia exist in multiple locales, depending on the scale of analysis. For localized research on individual suburbs, sources often exist in local libraries, historical societies, or state historical societies. Materials may include local newspapers, clip files, real-estate promotional material, oral histories, and records of local institutions. Because local newspapers are rarely digitized, most are available on microfilm or in original paper form. Municipal city halls may contain city council and planning department records, local ordinances, design review board minutes, mayoral papers, and the records of other local governing bodies, though some local public documents have been deposited in local or state archives.
Reuther Library of Labor and Urban Affairs—contain a wealth of local history materials, maps, booklets, real-estate ephemera, and private and public organization records. For the Levittowns, no intact corporate archive exists according to Dianne Harris. At the county and metropolitan level, records may be available in county government offices—including property records such as building, deed, and mortgage records, which are indispensable to histories of real-estate development.
Regional governing and planning bodies and university libraries may also hold regional reports on metropolitan transit, infrastructure, housing, planning, and the like. On the history of metro-wide politics, around issues such as busing, redevelopment, public housing, and environmentalism, university archives often hold the papers of key individuals, agencies, or advocacy groups. It is worth exploring the special collections in local universities of the metro area under study.
The built landscape itself is an excellent source for exploring the history of post suburbia, since much of this landscape is still intact. Homes, commercial districts, parks, streetscapes, job clusters, and physical barriers between segregated suburbs, as well as New Urbanist complexes and physical growth boundaries in Smart Growth cities, are all important markers of the suburban past.
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Culture of the Suburbs: International Research Network —This international network of institutions devoted to suburban studies began in Its website has good links to resources across the globe. This website is based on an exhibition of these photographs at UC Riverside in A promotional film for Levittown, PA. Center for Metropolitan Opportunity, University of Minnesota, School of Law —This website explores the diverse fiscal conditions and disparities across metropolitan America.
Brookings Metropolitan Policy Program —This program provides timely trend analysis, cutting-edge research and policy ideas for improving the health and prosperity of cities and metropolitan areas.
Becky Nicolaides and Andrew Wiese
The site includes events, media reports, research and commentary, projects, news and blogs. Offers rich context for the Ferguson crisis. The Atlas of the Historical Geography of the U. Nelson and Edward L. It contains maps on foreign-born populations over time, and will include maps on redlining during the Depression and urban renewal. The Atlantic CityLab —Up-to-date reporting and analysis on cities, suburbs, and metros. Calthorpe Associates —Innovators in urban planning and design.
Congress for the New Urbanism —Main website for the national organization advocating for denser, more sustainable designs. Statistics on Sprawl , by the American Farmland Trust. Sustainable Cities Collective —This independently moderated community is a clearinghouse of information on sustainable urbanism. The Urban Reinventors —An open-source on-line urban journal offering global perspectives on pressing issues facing metro areas. New Histories of Everyday America. University of Minnesota Press, Remapping Race in Suburban California.
North Point Press, University of Pittsburgh Press, Green Fields and Urban Growth, — The Suburbanization of the United States. Oxford University Press, The New Suburban History. University of Chicago Press, Suburban Politics in the Sunbelt South. Princeton University Press, The Origins of the New American Right.
Nicolaides, Becky and Andrew Wiese, eds. The New Suburban Reality. Brookings Institution Press, Race and the Struggle for Postwar Oakland. Singer, Audrey, Susan W. Hardwick, and Caroline B. Immigrant Incorporation in Suburban America. Places of Their Own: African American Suburbanization in the Twentieth Century. Dolores Hayden, Building Suburbia: Greenfields and Urban Growth, — New York: Jackson, Crabgrass Frontier , Jackson, Crabgrass Frontier , — Hayden, Building Suburbia , Nonfarm Housing Starts, — , Bulletin No.
Department of Labor, U.
New PDF release: West Yellowstone (Images of America) - trovicor E-books
Government Printing Office, , 15— Department of Commerce, Construction Reports: Housing Starts , C20—60, Issued June, , p. Documents accessed at http: Hayden, Building Suburbia , — Building Houses in Postwar Suburbia Charlottesville: An Economic and Governmental Process Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, , 89— Jacobs, Detached America , — Jacobs, Detached America , chapters 4—5. Vintage, , —; David Smiley, Pedestrian Modern: Shopping and American Architecture, — Minneapolis: Louise Mozingo, Pastoral Capitalism: Andrew Friedman, Covert Capital: University of California Press, Thomas Sugrue, Origins of the Urban Crisis: Robert Self, American Babylon: Sugrue, Origins of the Urban Crisis: Princeton University Press, , 9.
African American Suburbanization in the 20th Century Chicago: Arnold Hirsch, Making the Second Ghetto: Race and Housing in Chicago, — Chicago: Johns Hopkins University Press, Wiese, Places of Their Own. Columbia University Press, ed. Prentice-Hall, ; Dianne Harris, ed. Building and Rebuilding Levittown New York: Simon and Schuster, Greenwood, , 85—86; Gwendolyn Wright, Building the Dream: Putnam Sons, , University of Chicago Press, , chapters 5—6.
Baxandall and Ewen, How the Suburbs Happened , Cohen, A Consumers Republic , chapter 5, quote at Whyte, Organization Man , Whyte, Organization Man , — Although Whyte went on to critique this way of life, he nonetheless depicted in detail a culture of vibrant neighborhood life. Baxandall and Ewen, How the Suburbs Happened , — Levittown, Pennsylvania , ed.
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University of Pittsburgh Press, , — University of Pittsburgh Press, , 30—31, Gans, Levittowners , — Other works documenting strong social and civic engagement in suburbia in the —s include John R. Alexander Sim and Elizabeth W. Loosley, Crestwood Heights New York: Houghton Mifflin, ; Claude S. Community Activism in Suburban Queens, — Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, , chapter 4. Elaine Tyler May, Homeward Bound: Beyond Myth and Motherhood New York: Women and Gender in Postwar America, — Philadelphia: Michelle Nickerson, Mothers of Conservatism: Liebman, Living Room Lectures: University of Texas Press, Scholars have recently explored how suburban elements such as home ownership and detached housing were an integral part of housing initiatives overseas during the Cold War.
For the global reach of American suburban ideals in this period, see: Nancy Kwak, Homeownership for All: Lewis Mumford, The City in History: University of Chicago Press: About Contact News Giving to the Press. Under a Bad Sign Jonathan Munby. Face Value Michael O'Malley.
From Power to Prejudice Leah N. The Sit-Ins Christopher W. Contributors Acknowledgments Introduction Kenneth L. The Second Great Migration: A Historical Overview James N. The Second Ghetto and the Suburb Chapter 6: If the series has an order, add a number or other descriptor in parenthesis after the series title eg.
By default, it sorts by the number, or alphabetically if there is no number. If you want to force a particular order, use the character to divide the number and the descriptor. So, " 0 prequel " sorts by 0 under the label "prequel. Series was designed to cover groups of books generally understood as such see Wikipedia: Like many concepts in the book world, "series" is a somewhat fluid and contested notion. A good rule of thumb is that series have a conventional name and are intentional creations , on the part of the author or publisher.
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