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Table of contents
London: Penguin. Morgan, R. The Future of Policing. Mount, F.
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London: Short Books. NACRO National Audit Office Regulating the Private Security Industry. London: The Stationary Office.
Nellis, M. Howard Journal of Criminal Justice, 44 2 , The growth of CCTV: a global perspec- tive on the diffusion of video surveillance in publicly accessible space. Bowling Alone.
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New York: Touchstone. Reiner, R. The Politics of the Police 4th ed. Reflections on the Refusal to Acknowledge Private Govern- ments. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Morris eds. Cabinet Office. National Strategy for Neighbourhood Renewal. London: South, N. Policing for Proit. Policing: A Journal of Policy and Practice, 3 1 , Who Patrols the Streets? Van Steden, R. The growth of private security: trends in the European Union. Security Journal, 20 4 , Exclusion from Public Space. Von Hirsch, D. Wakefield eds. Oxford: Hart. Wakefield, A. Cullomp- ton: Willan.
White, A.
British Journal of Criminology, 53 1 , Sheffield: Sheffield University. Williams, J. Policing and Society, 15 2 , After analysing some relevant chances and obstacles of plural policing, the author focuses on local safety and security governance before ending with considerations upon plural policing and the changing role of the state. His research interests and publications cover questions of security structure, police, policing and crime prevention.
Plural Policing
The author wants to thank dr. Verena Schulze and Tobias John for critical comments and valuable support. This short sketch already shows that the need for collaboration between police and municipality is generated within the very structure of the German political system. Against the background of a changing security framework and new developments in the security culture Daase, , upcoming private security companies, new risks and threats and complex changes in local societies have detected and urged plural policing to be a potentially fruitful approach for dealing with the changing requirements.
However, plural policing in Germany has evolved less fundamentally in recent decades than in other countries, e. Applying the words of Bayley and Shearing , , Germany has not yet? The reasons for this conclusion will be explored in the following chapters. This article lu focuses on the description and analysis of this specific character of German plural policing; the assessment of the current situation and potential future developments is due for further discussion.
The focus of its analysis is on the local level and we concentrate on policing in the sense of operative action rather than strategies or comprehensive conceptualisation. After analysing some relevant chances and obstacles of plural policing, the article focuses on local safety and security governance before ending with considerations upon plural policing and the changing role of the state and a short comparison between plural policing in the Anglo-Saxon hemisphere.
These stakeholders not only differ in their legal and institutional backgrounds, they are 1 Besides this understanding of pluralisation there could, of course, be put several additional per- spectives on this feature. As it would go beyond the scope of this article, not all of the aspects can be described intensively, but some — especially recent — developments and forms shall be dis- cussed.
Plural policing: Theory and practice
Plural policing and the police Of course the police bear the main responsibility for visible policing, but they constantly collaborate with other stakeholders and players in all aspects of plural policing. However the main tasks in the context of law enforcement, crime fighting, traffic policing etc. They could — more or less reliably — differentiate their work from other authorities in that they were not experiencing competition from private security firms and had overall sufficient resources to fulfil their tasks. Changes in the crime and risk situation, however, an altered reception of crime and risks, a decreasing sense of safety in communities, increasing economic problems and new challenges to provide safety, security and order led to extensive reforms, an altered role in the security structure and new interpretations of the police duties with a controversial review about the core tasks of police John, , While the police forces were rather reluctant to change and tried to maintain a traditional position, wider political developments encouraged the pluralisation of policing.
Citizens, enterprises and other players identified the constricted faculties of the police and assigned private security firms to grant their safety and security Hirschmann, , So the market and politics pushed the idea of plural policing and the police learned or had to learn to collaborate with other stakeholders and to develop the idea of synergy, but still fulfil their sovereign Maklu EJPS Volume 2 Issue 3. John , p. Plural policing and municipality As a result of German federalism the role of the cities as authorities for matters of public order can vary quite substantially.
The local authorities have specialised lu public order departments, which deal with most of the public order issues, such as control of pubs and restaurants, veterinary and food supervision, trade supervision etc. But in addition other departments such as the welfare department, parks and gardens department or building authority department, have some responsibilities ak in matters of public order.
Most of these tasks are fulfilled in a bureaucratic way: receipt and assessment of application, notification of licence etc. But of course licensing and compliance with regulations have to be controlled, and field staff of the local authorities are assigned for these tasks. Some of these are uniformed, when they work within the public space.
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The public order departments have to deal with the problems in an administrative way, they can give orders, they can fine, they can withdraw licenses m etc. If a situation needs the use of force the city wardens call the police. In some cases it is difficult to differentiate properly between public order, safety and security and it is also difficult to assess the grade of risks, to separate administra- tive offense and crime, to distinguish anti-social behaviour from minor criminal offences; so the distinction of police tasks and local authority duties is often unclear.
In everyday practice staff deal with these problems pragmatically, and quite seldom are there conflicts between the authorities. Plural policing and private security firms While in other countries it is quite normal to see private security firms hereafter PSFs operating in public spaces, for many years this has not been the case in Germany. They also took care of burglary alarm systems of busi- nesses, organisations and citizens or carried out patrols within premises. Increased feelings of insecurity of citizens in a new security culture, the development of semi-public spaces such as shopping malls etc.
These private security firms still have major activities in their traditional fields of activities mentioned above, but they are also increasingly visible in the semi-public and public space and are integrated in plural policing. In these cases the guards and watchmen exercise the property rights of their clients so they can deny access, exclude undesirable people or seize offenders for a short period until the police can record a charge. But the compe- tences of the watchmen are constricted to self-defence and help in need.
Legally ak they are not allowed to search someone, to collect personal data or to use force.
If such actions are necessary they have to call the police. In everyday practice the responsibilities of PSFs, the police and the public order departments of the local authorities merge and the boundaries of duties are often not clear to the acting people but also to the citizens who are affected by their activities. While the legal framework of the collaboration is widely clear, the operational arrangements are often rather nebulous, especially when it comes to deciding about the claims or m about the differentiation of public- and semi-public space.
If the co-contractors are the local authorities the PSF activities concentrate on public order aspects e. The public-private contract in Berlin for example was agreed between the police and the regional association of PSFs. Via this association, 11 mainly medium-sized PSFs with about 7, employees were integrated in the information and communication network with the police. Such conferment is handled very rarely in Germany but can be seen for example in speed limit enforcement, airport security or passenger screenings. The PSF act on behalf of public authorities, have to act in the specific legal framework and are under control of the authorities.
Plural policing and other societal agencies On the face of it, it would seem that societal agencies are not engaged in policing. These agencies have their main role in very many other fields like welfare, leisure, culture, sports, integration etc. But seeing policing in a broader sense and especially integrating ak prevention on the one hand and follow-up care e. Especially some health and welfare organisations can play a crucial part in policing strategies when it comes to dealing with juveniles in the public space e.
Policing reduced to control, deterrence and law enforcement would not solve the m problems but would bear the chance of worsening them.