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The phrase is more strange than beautiful. Alter renders perhaps the most famous poetic lines in English with an admirable deference to the K. The L ord is my shepherd, I shall not want. In grass meadows He makes me lie down, by quiet waters guides me. My life He brings back. Your eyes are doves through the screen of your tresses.

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Your hair is like a herd of goats that have swept down from Mount Gilead. Your teeth like a flock of matched ewes that have come up from the washing, all of them alike, and none has lost its young. Like a scarlet thread, your lips, and your tongue—desire. Like cut pomegranate your cheekbones through the screen of your tresses. Something of the lulling Jacobite music is gone; it is difficult to imagine someone reading aloud the Alter version to a lover, as so many have read aloud the K. Like a flock of ewes! Like a cut pomegranate! The notes are not neutral exegesis but richly explanatory and argumentative.

Sometimes, as Freud famously said of cigars, a navel is just a navel, despite the inclination of some interpreters to see it as an image of a different body part.

Christianity Beliefs

Nevertheless, the filling of a receptacle with liquid has a certain erotic resonance. But the intention of the line is more general: just as the crescent concavity of her navel should always be filled, she is never to be arid and empty. One should note that this poetics has no particular commitment to metaphoric consistency. How could they not? The King James Version reads, in key respects, like poetry from a period when Shakespeare and Donne and Herbert were all writing. It seems right that, in an age when the center of gravity for serious reading has shifted into the classroom, we would produce a seminar Bible, in the best sense—a version of scripture made not to be obeyed or scrutinized for lessons but to be studied and shared through the pleasure of pluralist interpretation and constant cross-referencing.

This Bible is aware of how much awareness reading a sacred text demands. The fact that ancient scriptural style can be defended by reference to the fictional monologue of an Irish woman relating the details of her many-sided sex life in turn-of-the-century Dublin is a sign of the luxuriance of our own culture, which no longer builds high walls, as Catholic Ireland did for so long, between the sacred and the profane.

When it comes to the Quran, the adjacent, later holy text, we are in deeper waters, where citing Molly Bloom, or her Islamic equivalents, is unlikely to help us penetrate its meanings or find neat analogues for its beauties. Weighing in at nearly a thousand pages of translation and quotation and citation and argument, it is never relieved from the pressures of contemporary perplexities, political and rhetorical.

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Such a reader, approaching from outside the scholarly and scriptural field, can only sense the audacity of his project, the hazards it must navigate. To make the Quran a dependency of the Bible can be seen as a form of colonialism. Every step is considered, and the performance is carefully constrained by parentheses and negative constructions.

He obviously thinks that the Quran has had multiple authors and editors, rather than, as Muslim tradition holds, having been dictated directly by the Angel Gabriel to the Prophet Muhammad, but no positive assertion could be more cautiously wrapped in qualification. Neither narrative nor obviously philosophical, it is a series of often disjointed-seeming exhortations and commands and hymns and images, with stories borrowed telegraphically from the Bible and then editorialized on by a divine voice.

Although the Quran is part of an oral tradition of versifying much of it rhymes, though not in this translation , it is also purposefully opaque, enigmatic in execution, as a divine text should be. Alter emphasizes similar effects in the Hebrew Bible—the way in which passages in Lamentations, for instance, are shaped as acrostics. The mystery is essential to the sacredness of the text. Tolkien began his series with an inscription in Orcish, which he did not expect his readers to understand; they were to pay reverence to the occult nature of his imagination even before they entered his books.

The three holy texts—Torah, Gospel, and Quran—turn out to be tightly interwound, so much so that it is not entirely wrong to see the Quran as a long correction to and commentary on the Jewish and Christian scriptures. There are abbreviated vignettes of Mary and Joseph and Jesus, of the other, earlier Joseph, of Moses and Aaron, and of Jacob and Isaac and Abraham, with echoes of the Psalms and the Gospels found everywhere. Countless are the points of contact, the small adjustments. One crucial early turn involves the Prostration of the Angels, in itself a beautiful title for a poem.

In the Quran, adapting the Genesis story of creation, God, rather than Adam, names all the animals—yet the order of animal names is given to Adam before it goes to the angels, who are then asked to bow before Adam, conceding the superiority of man even to the celestial choir:. We have no knowledge except what You have taught us.

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Indeed, You are the All-knowing, the All-wise. At the same time, Adam is assigned to a level not of subjection but of near-equality. Similarly, the story of the temptation is transformed: in the Jewish version, the snake who tempts Eve is simply a snake; in the Christian interpretation, it is Satan in the guise of a snake; in the Islamic account, it is Satan himself. That these stories, of the Garden and the Fall, are told so telegraphically surely indicates that their audiences were familiar with previous versions of them.

And yet, Reynolds makes clear, no versions of what we now call the Old or New Testaments existed in Arabic when the Quran was composed—those texts would have been known almost exclusively through oral tradition and storytelling. The Quran, in turn, draws from an overheard version of the Greek texts, probably as passed through North African and Syrian translations, so what we are witnessing is part of a centuries-old game of telephone, played throughout the ancient Middle East in many of its tongues.

It can seem mysterious that Quranic references to the Biblical texts are nonetheless so frequent and so deft, until you stop to think about just how much can be transmitted by shared storytelling, even in a hyperliterate culture like ours, let alone in a bardic oral culture like that of seventh-century Arabia. The gist of such tales would be immediately available to us, even if we remembered the details differently or changed the original storytelling sequence.

Something like this seems to have happened in the composition of the Quran. Although in many places the alterations appear to be purposeful rebuttals of the Biblical stories, in other places the tales have, it seems, simply been compressed or altered by repetition. As Reynolds points out, Haman, the fifth-century-B.

Persian villain of the Biblical Book of Esther, is transposed in the Quran back to pharaonic Egypt, where he can bedevil Moses—perhaps to make a specific theological point, perhaps in the spirit of an inspired storyteller redeploying a good villain. The Quran has a story about Jesus that, Reynolds shows, is a variant of one told originally about Alexander the Great.

The Quran accepts both the Torah and the Gospels as having been divinely inspired but considers them now outmoded.


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There is an upright group among them, but what many of them do is evil. O People of the Book! Why do you mix the truth with falsehood, and conceal the truth while you know [it]?

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Allah just is, and just does. The Christian Jesus is a lesser prophet, then, wrongly promoted by his followers to coequal status with the divine one. The one perpetual foundation of Islam, which shines through every page of the annotated text, is the insistence on the absolute divinity of the divine—God is everywhere, all-knowing and all-penetrating, and the essence of holiness is compliance with his will.

The God of the Book of Genesis or of Job, who makes bargains or bets, or the God with whom Jesus, in effect, contests in the Agony in the Garden, is a more argumentative, a more anthropomorphic, creature. That God, Yahweh, is imaginable as the benevolent but enraged patriarch whom Michelangelo pictures so effectively on the Sistine ceiling. The resistance of Islam to depictions of the divine arises from the absurdity of depiction—the absurdity is the sacrilege. It is logical, then, that submission to his authority depends not at all on signs or miracles.

The Quran would regard any such demonstrations as unworthy of omnipotence. Some New Testament passages seem to mention the non-resurrected dead experiencing some sort of afterlife for example, the parable of Lazarus and Dives ; yet the New Testament includes only a few myths about heaven and hell.


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  • Specifically, heaven is a place of peaceful residence, where Jesus goes to "prepare a home" or room for his disciples John Some of the earliest Christian art depicts heaven as a green pasture where people are sheep led by Jesus as "the good shepherd" as in interpretation of heaven. As the doctrines of heaven and hell and Catholic purgatory developed, non-canonical Christian literature began to develop an elaborate mythology about these locations.

    Dante's three-part Divine Comedy is a prime example of such afterlife mythology, describing Hell in Inferno , Purgatory in Purgatorio , and Heaven in Paradiso. Myths of hell differ quite widely according to the denomination. The Second Coming of Christ holds a central place in Christian mythology. The Second Coming is the return of Christ to earth during the period of transformation preceding the end of this world and the establishment of the Kingdom of Heaven on earth. According to Matthew's gospel, when Jesus is on trial before the Roman and Jewish authorities, he claims, "In the future you will see the Son of Man sitting at the right hand of the Mighty One and coming on the clouds of heaven.

    Christian mythology incorporates the Old Testament's prophecies of a future resurrection of the dead.

    Christian mythology

    Like the Hebrew prophet Daniel e. Christian eschatological myths feature a total world renovation after the final judgment. According to the Book of Revelation, God "will wipe every tear from their eyes, and there will be no more death or mourning, wailing or pain, for the old order has passed away". One nation will not raise the sword against another; nor will they train for war again. Certain scriptural passages even suggest that God will abolish the current natural laws in favor of immortality and total peace:.

    When Christianity was a new and persecuted religion, many Christians believed the end times were imminent.