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This change in strategy resulted in the last year of the war for the Japanese on Rota to construct extensive interior defensive fortifications at Ginalangan and Chudang Palii along escarpments on the eastern slopes of Sabanna. The Ginalangan fortifications extend for meters and contain at least features with caves, tunnels, pillboxes, stairs, and walls. The walls are concrete.

No guns are currently present. The Chudang Palii fortifications are 1, meters long and have features with interconnecting caves, tunnels, walls, walkways, and guns located along the limestone bluff primarily comprised of dry-laid limestone rock walls and include mm and mm guns. These fortifications were constructed by forced labor of Chamorros, Koreans, and Okinawans.

Stent, USMC. The Japanese military! The same day, the US military government went ashore that consisted of three Naval officers, seven Navy enlisted personnel, ten enlisted Marines, and fifteen Guamanian policemen of the Local Security Patrol Force. The US occupation force by October was reduced to three officers and thirty enlisted personnel along with Marines and Seabees whose primary function was to repair of the Rota airfield which became useable by the end of November The Japanese surrender and American occupation also revealed the conditions that the people of Rota had to endure from June to September That isolation of Rota brought hardships to the inhabitants of Rota for the last year of the war.

People had quickly sought shelter in caves and the jungle. Those fishing were in serious danger of being attacked from the air. Subsistence from gardens and the jungle was inadequate so that malnutrition became prevalent.

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There was a sudden increase in infant mortality and several Chamorros were killed in the bombings. The Japanese became suspicious of the Chamorros yielding to deaths and rumors of their impending demise at the hands of the Japanese. The end of the war brought an end to a living nightmare on Rota. He has explored Rota extensively and conducted archival research on the island. Little is known about these sites despite their existence across the Pacific. This paper provides an overview of how the authors are studying these sites and what they can tell us about the history, archaeology and heritage of WWII.

To date, most of the archaeological research on karst defenses has been consultancydriven and sites are described when encountered as part of larger environmental, observational and post-war studies DeFant and Fulmer ; DeFant et al. During an investigation in by archaeologists from Flinders University and Ships of Exploration and Discovery Research, Incorporated into the significance of caves and tunnels to the Saipan community, locals expressed the need to know more about these sites.

Flinders University on the defensive strategies and tactics people used at karst defenses during the Battle for Saipan. The authors, along with archaeologists from Flinders University, cultural historian, Genevieve Cabrera, and with the help of property owners and volunteers, gathered data from over 70 sites. Using this data, the authors argue that karst defenses are a particular type of site that warrants more historical and archaeological attention if we are to fully understand WWII in the Pacific.

Karst is a geological term that describes a type of landscape made of water-soluble rock, such as limestone, characterized by caves and sinkholes Stafford et al. Karst defenses should not be confused with other types of fortifications such as bunkers and pillboxes, which are constructed of concrete and steel and typically found on top of the landscape. Figure 1 helps to further illustrate the definition of karst defenses. The Last Command Post is constructed in blockhouse or bunker style in that a large portion of the site is made of concrete, including reinforced concrete walls and internal concrete pillars.

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However, the reinforced concrete walls of the site are additions to natural openings in the limestone. The concrete augments the natural portion and therefore, the site is considered a karst defense rather than a bunker. This site is built entirely of concrete and does not surround any limestone openings or outcrops and is thus not considered a karst defense. Figure 2: Type 38 Japanese gun in concrete casemate at Laulau Bay.


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Much of the literature seldom differentiates between caves and tunnels and often uses the terms interchangeably. However, the two are distinct. Caves are defined as spaces within bedrock, including rock shelters, alcoves and sinkholes, that are natural or were once natural and then modified and used during WWII. Tunnels, on the other hand, are openings in bedrock that are excavated by humans or were once natural openings and then excavated by humans for WWII defense. The tunnels in Saipan were constructed by hand and excavated with pick-axes or a combination of rock blasting using explosives and hand excavation Figure 3.

When viewed in a vertical cross-section, the internal shape of legs can be either round or square. The longest tunnel recorded for the project was 80m and the widest in overall width was Both caves and tunnels are modified in various ways. Some of the additions to the sites in Saipan include wood, concrete and stacked limestone walls. The limestone walls can be stacked with or without mortar eg. Sites in Saipan also contain limestone stairs, concrete cisterns and some caves exhibit signs of stalactite and stalagmite clearing.

Figure 4 shows the distribution of sites with known locations plotted onto a geological map of Saipan. As expected, the karst defenses in Saipan exist throughout deposits of water-soluble bedrock, but not within areas of beach, wetland and limesand which! Historical Context Exactly when karst defenses were constructed in the Pacific is still unknown and there is considerable historical debate surrounding this issue.

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The historical research conducted for the Saipan project revealed valuable insights into the timing of Japanese fortification construction and the historical trajectory of karst defenses in the Pacific. The Mandate allowed Japan to administer Micronesia, but it had to remain open to trade with all nations. Article 4 of the agreement prohibited Japan from fortifying the islands and establishing military bases Higuchi ; Petty ; Rottman ; Russell ; Smith Throughout the s and 30s, several actions by Japan raised suspicions, particularly among the US that the Japanese were clandestinely fortifying the Pacific.

The Japanese refused a number of foreign visits although not all , made foreign business opportunities difficult to pursue, requested to increase their naval tonnage, invaded Manchuria and finally withdrew from the League of Nations in Denfeld ; Peattie —, —; Rottman Moreover, in Saipan, the Japanese began dredging Tanapag Harbour in and constructing the Tanapag seaplane base and Aslito Airfield in Denfeld ; Peattie Although these facilities were eventually used during WWII, the Japanese were open about their construction and assured the international community that they were for civilian and commercial use only Denfeld ; Peattie , The US sent spies to Micronesia to find evidence that Japan was fortifying the area, but they were unsuccessful.

As British journalist, R. One problem in this regard, identified by Peattie , is that this was a transitional period in the conduct of war which favored airpower over other forms of military power. According to US unit histories, the first karst defenses encountered by Allied forces were in Bataan, the Philippines, during the Battle of the Pockets in late-January and early-February Morton , According to the historical literature, karst defenses were not a prominent fortification until after the fall of Saipan in July Denfeld Peleliu, for example, had over caves and tunnels, Iwo Jima had over 1.

According to these sources and the data gathered from Saipan, it appears that karst defense construction took place early on in the war, accelerated as the war progressed and occurred more intensely and extensively on islands that were invaded by the US after the fall of Saipan.

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Whether the Japanese constructed karst defenses even earlier than cannot be determined at this point in the research. War period documents from places such as Iwo Jima suggest that with enough supplies and labor, karst defense construction would have been relatively rapid. Similarly, the karst defenses in the Philippines had to have been constructed in the weeks between the Japanese invasion in December and when the US first encountered them in January Morton , Additionally, Antonio Borja, a native Tinian merchant marine was conscripted into the Japanese army at Rota and forced to dig tunnels for cannons.

Borja remembers that tunnel preparation took 18 months and the work schedule was from seven in the morning until midnight, six days a week Petty — While obviously a greater number of karst defenses would take longer to construct, if the sites on Iwo Jima only took three months, then with enough labor, the karst defenses in Saipan would not have taken any longer than those on Iwo Jima. Use and Occupation The Saipan project sought to answer some of the most basic questions about karst defenses including their use and occupation.

While war period documentation identifies a range of cave and tunnel use, some historical documentation limits the function of karst defenses to gun emplacements and combat positions War Department a The karst defenses in Saipan functioned in a variety of ways and were used by three different groups of people: the Japanese military, the US military and civilians.

The majority of karst defenses were constructed by the Japanese military for use during the war. While most caves and tunnels were eventually used as defensive positions, particularly in the throes of battle, artifacts found within these sites identify their original intended use. Evidence for its use as a hospital includes an abundance of materials such glass and metal medicine containers and operating tools. Figure 5 is an example of some of the medical items located within SPS11 including a glass syringe and a laryngeal mirror. Artifacts that identify its use as a command post include items related to communication devices such as vacuum tubes Figure 6 , which were designed to pass electric current within electronic devices Reich Also within SPS20 are several radio transmitter components.

Shelter sites were identified based on personal items. Examples include the soap containers and razor components found within SPS18 Figure 8. Storage sites had stocks of food and sites used as combat positions contained a variety of ammunition types Figure 9.


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Identifying the function of sites is more complex than simply locating artifacts to support the interpretation. For example, specific patterns in the construction of karst defenses and how they relate to function are also a part of the identification process and are a topic included in forthcoming publications.

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Figure 5: Medical items within SPS Syringe left , laryngeal mirror right 8cm scale. The research on Saipan identified US military use of karst defenses.

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The US did not excavate their own tunnels, but repurposed Japanese tunnels. One tunnel in the Laulau Bay area of Saipan was likely used as a hospital and contains 68 US metal cot fragments. Olmo also found that this tunnel was used as a US military hospital. Two inscriptions in smeared cement appear in one leg of the tunnel. According to his obituary, he did not have any descendants.

Within this site are several Budweiser, Schlitz and Miller brand ml 12oz ring-pull tab beer cans. Ring-pull tab cans were introduced in , but petered out in the 70s due to the increasing litter problem caused by the throwaway tab Busch —; Maxwell , The inscriptions and the ring-pull tab cans suggest that this tunnel was likely constructed for Japanese use during the war and then repurposed by the US military and used as late as the s.

Finally, the research in Saipan was also able to identify the civilian caves. Four caves in Saipan were identified as civilian shelter sites. These sites were all unmodified caves and usually deep with multiple chambers or small spaces with little overhead clearance. Civilian caves also contained artifacts not found in other sites. This gas mask had a single plastic eye shield harnessed to the head with wide adjustable fabric straps attached to a small filter cartridge on the front of the face.

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Thousands of these types of gas masks were issued to civilians in case of chemical warfare or fire MacDonald According to archaeologist Leland Bibb, producing simple vessels in solid colors to sell overseas was a trend in the s Leland Bibb pers. Single-color glazed ceramics were likely a typical item in most Japanese civilian households. Whether Indigenous civilians had access to the same ceramics is unknown. The use and occupation of karst defenses will vary throughout the Pacific depending on the circumstances surrounding each island. In some areas of the Pacific, such as Peleliu, in Palau and Iwo Jima, there will be no evidence of civilian use of caves since civilians on these islands were evacuated before battle between the US and Japan occurred Poyer et al.

Micro-change refers to specific human behaviors and choices reflected in material remains known to have been deposited over a narrow temporal period. This project aimed to investigate the role of karst defenses during the battle as well as identify individual and group behaviors at sites. One way of doing this is through battlefield reconstruction. The reconstruction of the Battle for Saipan uses techniques referred to as gross and dynamic patterning Fox and Scott Gross patterning integrates archaeologically identified positions with information from the historical record Fox and Scott Gross patterning is achieved by identifying karst defenses, obtaining global positioning system coordinates and plotting them onto a map of Saipan.

By geo-rectifying the situation maps in a program called ArcGIS and plotting karst defense sites, a detailed story of the battle as it occurred at a particular site and the branch of the US military that was involved can be constructed. Sites were then related to the US official history of the Battle for Saipan, US Operation Forager reports and oral histories in order to identify Japanese military and civilian involvement.

A portion of battlefield reconstruction can be conducted at a cave labeled SPS19 in the Talofofo area of northern Saipan. SPS19 is an example of a cave attacked by a flamethrower. Within the cave are expanded metal drums, a large cache of expanded cans with charred insides, charred walls and roof spalling.