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Before the outbreak of World War II in the Pacific, the island of Borneo was divided into five territories. Four of the territories were in the north and under British control – Sarawak, Japanese immigrants had also been in the Raj of Sarawak since , with some of them working as hawkers and some Japanese women.
Table of contents

Economic history of Japan

British officials believed that the rural Malay farmers needed to be protected from economic and cultural change and that traditional class divisions should be maintained. Hence, most economic development was left to Chinese and Indian immigrants, as long as it served long-term colonial interests. The Malay elite enjoyed a place in the new colonial order as civil servants. Many Malayan and Bornean villagers, however, were affected by colonial taxes and consequently were forced to shift from subsistence to cash-crop farming; their economic well-being became subject to fluctuations in world commodity prices.

Malaya and British North Borneo developed extractive, plantation-based economies oriented toward the resource and market needs of the industrializing West. British authorities in Malaya devoted much effort to constructing a transportation infrastructure in which railways and road networks linked the tin fields to the coast; port facilities also were improved to facilitate resource exports. These developments stimulated growth in the tin and rubber industries to meet world demand.

Japanese economic takeoff after

The tin industry remained chiefly in immigrant Chinese hands through the 19th century, but more highly capitalized, technologically sophisticated British firms took over much of the tin production and export by World War II. The rubber tree was first introduced from Brazil in the s, but rubber did not supersede the earlier coffee and gambier plantings until near the end of the century. By the early 20th century thousands of acres of forest had been cleared for rubber growing, much of it on plantations but some on smallholdings.

The British also improved public health facilities, which reduced the incidence of various tropical diseases, and they facilitated the establishment of government Malay schools and Christian mission mostly English-language schools; the Chinese generally had to develop their own schools. These separate school systems helped perpetuate the pluralistic society. Some Chinese, Malays, and Indians benefited from British economic policies; others enjoyed no improvement or experienced a drop in their standard of living.

The impact of British rule

Government-sanctioned opium and alcohol use provided a major source of revenue in some areas. Between and several million Chinese entered Malaya especially the west-coast states , Sarawak, and British North Borneo to work as labourers, miners, planters, and merchants. The Chinese eventually became part of a prosperous, urban middle class that controlled retail trade. South Indian Tamils were imported as the workforce on Malayan rubber estates. With most Malays in villages, Chinese in towns, and Indians on plantations, the various ethnic groups basically lived in their own neighbourhoods, followed different occupations, practiced their own religions, spoke their own languages, operated their own schools, and, later, formed their own political organizations.

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By the s ethnically oriented nationalist currents began to stir in Malaya, Singapore , and Sarawak. Malay groups either pursued Islamic revitalization and reform or debated the future of the Malays in a plural society, while Chinese organizations framed their activities around political trends in China. The Borneo states experienced many of the same changes. Vyner Brooke reigned until , furthering the pattern of personal rule established by his father and by his great-uncle, Sir James Brooke.


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Similar to Malaya, Sarawak became ethnically, occupationally, and socially segmented, with most Malays in government or fishing, most Chinese in trade, labour, or cash-crop farming, and most Iban in the police force or shifting cultivation. Resistance, mainly from the Chinese, was led by MCP guerrillas. British rule was reintroduced after the war, but met active resistance from the MCP. Malay nationalists also campaigned for independence. The Federation of Malaya, comprising 11 peninsular states, was established in A communist-led insurrection in that year was suppressed by the UK although guerrilla warfare continued in the north of the peninsula and Borneo and the last insurgents only surrendered in A delayed general election took place in From the seventh century, the region traded in pottery with China.

In the early 15th century the state was ruled mainly by the Sultan of Brunei. In the territory was made a British Protectorate, still administered by the Company, which also administered Labuan until , when it was joined to the Straits Settlements. From until the territory was occupied by the Japanese army.

The Arrival of Islam & the European Powers

In July it became the Crown colony of North Borneo. Archaeological evidence suggests that Sarawak was inhabited from about BCE. From the 15th century, it was ruled by the Sultan of Brunei who, in , ennobled James Brooke, a British adventurer, as Rajah of Sarawak, a reward for his help in calming a rebellion in Brunei. Brooke waged a vigorous campaign against piracy. Sarawak was gradually enlarged with additional grants of land from the Sultan, and the River Lawas area bought from the North Borneo Chartered Company in Sarawak prospered under Rajah Sir Charles Vyner Brooke reigned —46 , who attempted to set up an elected government in , but the territory was occupied by the Japanese army in the following year.

During the Japanese occupation, sickness and malnutrition spread throughout Sarawak.

Malaysia : History

The Rajah, resuming control in , decided that in the interests of Sarawak, he should make a gift of it to the UK Crown. Sarawak became a UK colony in July Early in , the governments of the Federation of Malaya and the UK and the Heads of the Malay States agreed that the Federation should achieve independence by the end of August if possible. On 31 August the Federation of Malaya became an independent nation and joined the Commonwealth.

Penang and Malacca became states of the Federation.

Tengku prince Abdul Rahman, leader of the independence movement, became Prime Minister. The Federation of Malaysia came into being on 16 September In , by mutual agreement, Singapore left the Federation and became an independent state. Amid violent ethnic clashes, the government suspended parliament and the national operations council ruled by decree for two years. Although Malays formed over half the population, in they accounted for about one per cent of national income.

After the parliamentary system was restored, the National Front Barisan Nasional — a multiethnic alliance led by UMNO — won over two-thirds of seats at all elections of the s, s and s and this continued into the s. Malays have dominated the political system since independence, and support in the Malay-dominated rural areas is crucial for political success at the national level.