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Editors in every age—including the present—have addressed a variety of questions, including how to make sense of conflicting early versions of the plays. Other publishers have taken the text in new directions, from foreign-language editions to graphic novels. In and , William Shakespeare, already established as a playwright, published two long poems, Venus and Adonis and Lucrece.

The poems, which reflected the classical fashion of the time, were very successful. Both poems were originally published as quarto editions. Shakespeare's sonnets were first published together in as a quarto, athough they were probably written much earlier. The sonnets, far more popular today than the epic poems, are still published both individually and as a group. A quarto is a small book, made by folding printed sheets twice to create four double-sided leaves or eight pages.

When they were not bound, quartos were less sturdy than large books and could be damaged or discarded, making them scarce today. Learn more about quartos in DIY Quarto , which includes a virtual printing house. Shakespeare's works — particularly his poems — were also sometimes published as octavo editions, small books made by folding printed sheets three times to create eight double-sided leaves or 16 pages.

Some of the quarto texts closely match the wording of the same play in later quartos and the First Folio, but others vary drastically, offering different early versions of the same play. Many of the earliest quartos, like Titus Andronicus, shown here, do not include Shakespeare's name but highlight instead the acting company that first performed the play.

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Seven years after Shakespeare's death, John Heminge and Henry Condell, his friends and colleagues in the King's Men acting company, collected almost all of his plays in a folio edition, now called the First Folio. A folio is a large book in which printed sheets are folded in half only once, creating two double-sided leaves or four pages.

Folios were more expensive and far more prestigious than quartos. Shakespeare's friendly rival Ben Jonson had previously published his own plays with his poems in a folio format book. The First Folio of Shakespeare, however, is the earliest folio consisting only of an author's plays. The First Folio groups the plays for the first time into comedies, histories, and tragedies, and it includes the Martin Droeshout portrait of Shakespeare, generally considered an image close to nature because it was approved by those who knew him.

There are 36 plays in the First Folio. Learn more about the First Folio. The First Folio sold well enough that it was followed in , nine years later, by the Second Folio, then in by the Third Folio and in by the Fourth Folio. The latter two added many new plays, most of which are not today considered to be by Shakespeare. Quarto editions of the plays continued to be produced as well. Those published in the late s, after the restoration of the English monarchy, include drastic changes and "improvements" reflecting the preferences of that time.

Shakespeare's plays, as printed in the First Folio and the early quartos, presented a challenge to later editors, in part because of the great variations between some quartos and the First Folio. In , Nicholas Rowe, the first editor of Shakespeare's plays in the modern sense, added act and scene divisions to every play, introduced exits and entrances based on the sense of the text, and included lists of the characters, or dramatis personae. Following Rowe, a long line of major editors produced editions of the plays that reflected the scholarship and thinking of their time.

Today, major print editions of the plays include the Arden, Riverside, Oxford, and Cambridge editions, as well as the current Folger editions , the most commonly used in American classrooms. The Folger Shakespeare Library offers Folger editions of the plays in print or digital formats, including downloadable, searchable Folger Digital Texts , which are available for free, and the Luminary Shakespeare apps. Editions of Shakespeare, from miniature volumes in traveling cases to large illustrated tomes, proliferated during the 19th century.

When she was in her 20s and living in Harrisonburg 30 minutes up the interstate from Staunton, Markowitz would hear people say, "Hey, Shakespeare is coming to the park tonight!

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More formally known as the Shenandoah Shakespeare Express, Shakespeare to Markowitz was "youthful, spontaneous, incredible fun energy. In the early s, Markowitz lived for a couple of years in Staunton and doesn't have fond memories. Main Street was dying and an adjacent psychiatric hospital the creepy, old generation of such institutions was closing, its de-institutionalized residents being moved into subsidized housing downtown.

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Markowitz remembers being chased to her car every night after work. She returned to Staunton for a job in , and though conditions had improved, she still describes it as dark times. In fact, it was the Shakespeare of Markowitz's past. Shenandoah Shakespeare Express built a permanent home in Staunton, making its debut in September The Blackfriars Playhouse is the perfect environment for the company—founded by Ralph Cohen, a professor of Shakespeare at James Madison University in Harrisonburg, and one of his students, Jim Warren—to stage plays using the theater conditions and staging practices Shakespeare's company would have used between and No longer wandering players though a national touring troupe is still part of its operation and with a growing education program, the company changed its name to the American Shakespeare Center.

Staunton already had a thriving arts community, says Markowitz, who became executive director of the Downtown Development Association in Several galleries and theater community groups were operating when the Blackfriars opened, and church concerts were part of the social scene. Arts and entertainment are in the town's DNA. Staunton incorporated in and became a railroad center in the mids today it is at the intersection of Interstates 81 and Warehouses and commercial businesses clustered around the depot; up the hill, the downtown district became the center for hotels, bars, theaters, and other venues of pleasure, arts, and entertainment, inspirational and carnal.

Though Virginia is replete with Civil War battlefields, Staunton served as a rest-and-recreation center for both armies, so the town escaped armed combat. Shakespeare, the man, would feel at home in such a community then, and Shakespeare's arrival in provided a steroid jolt to the culture and commerce of the town and to the academic and social offerings of Mary Baldwin, a women's college sitting like an acropolis in the center of town. Chefs turned Staunton into a culinary enclave.

Small businesses thrived downtown. Next door to the Blackfriars, a derelict hotel, the Stonewall Jackson, was remodeled and expanded as a conference center and designated a historic hotel. When asked what the Blackfriars most brought to the town, Markowitz doesn't hesitate. Only 15 percent of the Blackfriars audience is local. The American Shakespeare Center has a growing international reputation for the quality and style of its productions and for its education program that brings in students to learn how to stage Shakespeare and teachers to learn how to teach Shakespeare.

Many of the theater artists needed for the company's year-round calendar of productions end up settling in Staunton, captured by the combination of small-town atmosphere, a lively cultural vibe, and the surrounding wilderness beauty of the Shenandoah Valley. You want to see the entire Shakespeare canon?

Live here. This is all part of the definition of Shakespeare for Staunton. It is simply "Shakespeare," meaning the place, the product, its people, and their presence. Shakespeare is "a feeling," Markowitz says.

If you're in school and studying, it might be work. If you're in our community and you don't quite understand it, it might mean those artsy people. If you're in my job and you see the impact of it, Shakespeare is the reason people gather. It represents quality, it represents intelligence infused with humor and a sensibility that everybody can understand. He wrote for the common man. He wrote about situations that everybody encounters, and everybody can relate to it.

It's couched in this old-world way that a lot of people think is snooty, but it's really not. And I love the way the theater company presents it. It's so high energy, it's so much fun. She pauses a moment and then strikes home with what makes this Shakespeare stand out. Staging plays in the conditions for which Shakespeare wrote them brings out an improvisational vitality long buried by the technology-aided, proscenium-arch, director-centric theater of the past two centuries.

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Markowitz thinks back to the "youthful, spontaneous, incredible, fun energy" that Shakespeare brought to her life some years ago. They were celebrating two members in the company "completing the canon" playing in every Shakespeare-written play over the course of their careers with their opening-night performance of Coriolanus that had just concluded next door at the Blackfriars Playhouse. My wife and I happened to be in the lounge when they arrived, and one of the actors sidled up to me and whispered in my ear: "Sarah Fallon is coming back next Ren Season to play Richard II.

Then the actor whispered more: "And Josh Innerst is going to play Hamlet.

One year of excited anticipation culminated today, a day of incredible theater and exceptional Shakespeare. Fallon's Richard is everything I knew it would be, and the ensemble work is exquisitely nuanced. As for Hamlet , well, I'm a guy who spent his formative years attending theater in England, where standing ovations are rarer than comets passing earth. I normally don't stand until the second curtain call, and that only because I don't want to stand out—or sit out in America, not standing is rarer than comets.