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Water is essential for growing, packaging and transporting our food. All the earth's water already exists, captured in the ground, oceans, lakes, ice, snow and the . Completed in , Avon Dam supplies water to the Illawarra region. . best practice standards and meet the NSW Dams Safety Committee guidelines.
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Therefore, reversible sorption does not provide a sustain- able contaminant sink because the compounds are not removed from the MUS system as they are when contaminants are biodegraded, for example. Although the forces causing sorption are not particularly strong, the mass taken up by the solid phase can be significant. The magnitude of the sorption process and its dependence on concentration are functions of the specific phys- icochemical properties of the carbonaceous matter and organic contaminant.
Sorption can be nonlinear in concentration, and co-solutes may compete for more energetically favorable sorption sites, particularly when compounds are present at low concentrations compared to contaminant solubility. The effects of sorption-desorption may be more apparent and of greater im- pact on contaminant recovery during short-duration or small-scale tests lab and pilot-scale studies than in full-scale operations. In such tests, the source water and aquifer solids may remain farther from equilibrium than they would be dur- ing full-scale operations.
Ion Exchange Reactions Another water-rock interaction process that can occur during MUS activi- ties is cation exchange. Positively charged ions with physical and chemical af- finities can be exchanged between the water and the minerals comprising the aquifer matrix. Mineral groups primarily involved in these reactions are clays and zeolites because of their relatively high surface areas compared to others.
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This process does not change the total amount of charged species dis- solved in the water. However, it can cause significant changes in the concentra- tions of various ions dissolved in the water.
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As the aquifer is repeatedly exposed to the recharged water, the composition of exchangeable ions associated with the aquifer solids will change, evolving toward quasi equilibrium with the recharged water. This process can also significantly affect the dissolved concentrations of trace metal cations.
Particle and Microorganism Transport The movement and fate of particles and microorganisms that may be in source waters for MUS systems is of interest. Particle composition can include organic matter that can support redox reactions, pathogenic or innocuous micro- organisms, minerals, and aggregates of any combination of these. In addition, several classes of contaminants, such as hydrophobic organics and certain toxic metals, associate with particles.
Their movement in the subsurface is influenced by the behavior of the particles, not only by the dissolved phase concentrations. If the extracted water is used for drinking, then effective particle capture is de- sired so that the turbidity falls below the drinking water standard. Microorgan- ism transport and survival in MUS systems is especially important when the microorganisms are pathogenic. The subsurface can be an effective sink for removing pathogens to improve the quality of the extracted water.
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Finally, the movement of microorganisms and particulate organic matter influences the dis- tribution of microbial activity within an MUS system. This in turn will impact the spatial distribution of microbial activity in the storage zone and the extent and rates of biotransformation reactions.
The typical grain sizes that exist in the subsurface and the associated mod- erate to high specific surface area means that effective filtration and particle removal is often possible in MUS systems. The capture and accumulation of microorganisms on surfaces often enhances the potential for biotransformations. Particle and microorganism transport is typically governed by movement of the groundwater coupled with retardation by attachment onto surfaces and straining or trapping in interstitial pores.
Attachment is commonly thought of as the main contribution to retardation and removal. Removal by straining is thought to be important only when the diameter of the particle exceeds 5 percent of the mean interstitial pore size Jenkins and Lion, ; McDowell-Boyer et al. Particle and microorganism transport through the subsurface is influenced by several parameters including properties of the particle and microorganism, solu- tion chemistry, subsurface media characteristics, and interstitial fluid velocity.
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These factors are briefly described in the following paragraphs. Several reviews of particle and microorganism behavior in porous media are available if the reader desires additional information McDowell-Boyer et al. The presence of molecules such as proteins or polysaccharides on the cell surface and the presence of pili, as well as motility and chemotaxis, influence microor- ganism behavior in porous media. Many cell properties are influenced by the physiological state of the microorganism and can therefore differ significantly for the same species depending on environmental conditions.
The growth state of the microorganism and the presence of nutrients have, for instance, been shown to influence attachment Cunningham et al. Starvation is another important physiological state of microorganisms. Short-term starvation of bac- teria can result in an increased tendency to attach to surfaces.
Long-term starva- tion weeks to months in contrast may enhance microbial transport through porous media.
Solute characteristics including ionic strength, pH, temperature, concentra- tions of dissolved organic matter, surfactants, and nutrients have also been shown to influence particle and microorganism transport and adhesion to sur- faces. Increased ionic strength has been correlated widely with increased at- tachment. This effect is usually attributed to the compression of the electrostatic double layer in the presence of high ion concentrations.
Changes in solution pH have been shown to either increase or decrease the extent of particle and micro- organism transport and attachment. Consequently, uniform results for the influ- ence of pH have not been observed. Dissolved and sediment organic matter has been shown to increase the travel distance for particles and microorganisms in porous media columns.
The addition of surfactants or dispersants can result in decreased attachment and therefore facilitate the transport of particles and mi- croorganisms through porous media; however the activity or viability of the mi- croorganisms may also be altered. Porous media properties that have been reported to influence particle and microorganism transport and adhesion include pore water velocity, hydraulic conductivity, pore size, surface roughness, the presence of iron minerals and other surface coatings, the organic matter content, and grain and pore size distri- bution.
The surface charge and surface hydrophobicity of the porous media can also influence particle and microorganism attachment to surfaces. Transport of particles and microorganisms through porous media may be in- fluenced by some combination of the foregoing parameters.
Measurements of particle and microorganism attachment and movement under the conditions of interest tend to be much better predictors of movement and fate than attempting to scale-up information from characterization of the particles or cells or the po- rous medium. One approach to predicting particle and microorganism transport through porous media is to perform experiments with the aquifer material of interest as close as possible to the expected conditions in the field.
Harvey provides a good overview on how to design and standardize bacterial transport experiments. At- tenuation of microbial contaminants of concern, including viruses and parasites, in surface, groundwater and MUS systems has focused on understanding the survival kinetics influenced by environmental conditions. Parasites and viruses are more resistant then bacteria; however, bacteria particularly coliforms may regrow at higher tem- peratures.
Increased temperature typically increases the activity of native microbes and also directly influences inactivation rates of nonna- tive microbes, with higher temperatures leading to greater inactivation rates; for example, between 10 and days are needed to achieve 99 percent inactivation of Cryptosporidium depending on the temperature Table Greater survival has been reported under anaerobic conditions in several studies.
Influenced by temperature, nutrients, and aerobic conditions, increased activity generally enhances inactivation rates of fecal organisms. Enteric microorganisms of wastewater origin have been the predominant focus of studies on survival in groundwater with temperature the predominant variable studied. A recent review by John and Rose examined all reports describing microbial inactivation in groundwater and summarized inactivation rates for bacteria and viruses. The analysis showed that only temperature and type of microorganism influenced the inactivation rate Figure The data represented a mixture of studies done under aerobic and anaerobic, sterile and nonsterile conditions, but often there were not enough studies with the same organism under the same temperature to show a statistical difference.
Nonsterile conditions more often showed a greater inactivation than did sterile conditions when contrasted. This may indicate that regrowth is contributing to the overall inactivation rates. Similarly, re- growth of Enterococci may be occurring in groundwaters at higher tempera- tures, reflected in an overall slower inactivation rate. Pathogens such as Salmo- nella show an increasing rate of inactivation with increasing temperature, where as others such as Shigella exhibit variable rates and reflect the differences in.
Reprinted with permission from Ives et al. Copyright by American Society for Microbiology. It is known that viruses do not regrow in the environment, and inactivation rates in the virus literature show a clear temperature affect. Inactivation rates of coliphage a fecal bacterial virus indicator in groundwater were also summa- rized by John and Rose Some viruses e.
Another potential factor controlling the fate of fecal microorganisms, both in groundwater and in surface water, is the activity of other microorganisms such as bacteriophages, bacterivorous protozoa, and antagonistic autochthonous bacteria. While some studies have demonstrated that the presence of native bac- teria increased inactivation of seeded organisms Banning et al. Values review by John and Rose Error bars refer to one standard deviation in log10 per day. Adapted from John and Rose Copyright by American Chemical Society.
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This may have to do with interaction between oxygen levels, temperature, and nutrients. Gordon and Toze showed that microbial flora in groundwater influenced by oxygen, nutrients, and temperatures influenced survival rates of enteric viruses. Appendix A discusses some of the specific pathogens of concern. Some bacteria are able to regrow, which include the indicator bacteria Arcobacter and Legionella, yet models that can predict regrowth in the water environment are not available as they are for food.