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About the Book: The aim of this book is to help bridge the gap between research and practice in the field of learning disability. It is written for all the learning disabled children, their teachers, parents and siblings.
Table of contents

• About the Author
• Navigation menu
• Types of Learning Disabilities
• Looking for other ways to read this?
• The Difference Between Dysgraphia and Dyslexia

Racial disparities have been observed in the rates of LD among children in some but not other studies. According to NHIS data, the prevalence of LD among black children is generally higher than the prevalence of LD in white or Hispanic children; in , for example, the prevalence of LD among school-aged children was 1. Variations in the rates of LD by race must be cautiously interpreted. Even after taking into account the effect of socioeconomic status, there is some evidence that test bias and diagnostic bias contributes to disparities observed between racial or ethnic categories in the identification of children with LD Coutinho et al.

Differences in the rates of LD by race and ethnicity must take into account the role of poverty. Studies have consistently shown that the risk of LD is higher among children in poverty. LDs are frequently associated with certain other conditions, and it is important to consider these conditions in assessing impairment and planning interventions. The recognition of these associated difficulties varies depending on the age of the child and the severity and extent of the learning problems. The recognition of an LD may occur as the child enters school, but the LD may have been preceded by a language delay which does increase the risk of subsequent LDs.

LDs are also associated in complex ways with a range of other problems, including attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and disruptive behavior disorders such as conduct disorder. For children with more difficulty, repeated school failure may be associated with the onset of anxiety and depression in middle childhood and adolescence.

There may also be an increased risk for bullying, being bullied, or both. Although learning difficulties often do persist into adulthood, many individuals are able to develop compensatory strategies and can do well as adults. LDs are commonly associated with many medical conditions. A multitude of genetic and congenital conditions have LDs as a frequent phenotypic finding Kodituwakku, ; Mazzocco, ; Murphy et al. For example, children with spina bifida often have math-related learning difficulties Barnes et al.

Children born prematurely are also at increased risk for LDs, as are children with cerebral palsy Aarnoudse-Moens et al. Children with epilepsy and other neurologic conditions often have concurrent LDs which may be easily identified or overlooked because of the complexity of the primary neurologic problem Prince and Ring, Additionally, children may manifest LDs as findings that are associated with an unrecognized or newly recognized medical condition such as sleep apnea Lewin et al.

Learning difficulties, including dyslexia, result in significant functional impairments in important life skills such as reading and learning. Recent IDEA data show that children with LD are more likely to experience challenges in academic performance and negative school outcomes, including below-average test scores, lower grades, and higher rates of course failure. The same data show that approximately one-third of children with LDs have been held back a grade in school at least once.

Only about 68 percent of children with LDs graduate with a regular diploma, with 19 percent dropping out and 12 percent receiving a certificate of completion. Adults with LDs are less likely to enroll in post-secondary education than.

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At the same time, many of these individuals may have reasonably good real-life, or adaptive, skills. The presence of additional, comorbid diagnoses raises the likelihood of disruptions in multiple areas and of impaired functional skills. Even in the absence of a comorbid disorder, some learning difficulties can present challenges for the child in important functional areas, notably in the area of peer interactions. Increased family attention and participation in remedial efforts is an added burden.

In some ways the spectrum of possible early interventions has complicated the data on potential functional impairment. In addition, the largest body of research has focused on the most prevalent and clearly delineated LD, dyslexia, rather than on the outcomes of other areas of impairment. Given the various federal mandates for service, many children with significant LDs now receive special help. Most of the available information on treatment and outcome specifically addresses dyslexia or another specific learning disorder.

Even in the instances in which students who are dyslexic have received effective interventions, there are no data indicating a closure of the fluency gap; these individuals remain slow readers, although they are often very good thinkers and, with individualized accommodations, can succeed academically. Many different intervention strategies and accommodations are now available and can help children, adolescents, and adults with LDs.

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Department of Education, offers a good source of information concerning which programs are evidence based. No matter how intelligent an affected individual is, dyslexia will impede fluency, so these individuals require extra time to complete reading and writing assignments and to work on examinations. There are also various forms of assistance that can be used to accommodate these individuals, ranging from low tech to very high tech, e. Treatment planning should be comprehensive, addressing areas of weakness but also recognizing areas of strength.

The range of services provided in school can vary from a very intensive level of support, e. Support is often also provided through special lesson plans, with individuals grouped according to achievement levels, and frequent assessment and more intensive teacher involvement.

Electronic and other resources, such as the use of computers with spell check, text-to-speech or speech-to-text, and specialized games and learning materials, are also used. There are few data concerning the effectiveness of many of these procedures within the regular classroom. For students who qualify, the provision of resource room support or special classes along with an individualized education plan is often the most helpful approach.

It is important that the school focus on areas of strength as well as weakness, e. Other treatment approaches have been concerned with addressing what are presumed to be underlying problems in information processing, such as attention. LDs often present the child with challenges in other areas, including peer interaction. Support for programs in these areas, as well as the more specifically academic challenges, can be helpful. While many individuals with learning difficulties lead active and productive lives as adults, others have learning challenges that lead to early withdrawal from school and lower levels of occupational attainment.

Aarnoudse-Moens, C. Weisglas-Kuperus, J. Pediatrics 2 — Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders, 4th edition, text revision. Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders. Barnes, M. Wilkinson, E. Khemani, A. Boudesquie, M. Dennis, and J. Arithmetic processing in children with spina bifida: Calculation accuracy, strategy use, and fact retrieval fluency. Journal of Learning Disabilities 39 2 — Beckung, E. Neuroimpairments, activity limitations, and participation restrictions in children with cerebral palsy.

Boyle, C. Boulet, L. Schieve, R. Cohen, S. Blumberg, M. Yeargin-Allsopp, S. Visser, and M. Trends in the prevalence of developmental disabilities in US children, — Pediatrics — Cortiella, C.

The state of learning disabilities: Facts, trends, and emerging issues. Coutinho, M. Oswald, and A. The influence of sociodemographics and gender on the disproportionate identification of minority students as having learning disabilities. Remedial and Special Education 23 1 — DOE U. Department of Education. English, L.

Barnes, H. Taylor, and S. Mathematical development in spina bifida. Developmental Disabilities Research Reviews 15 1 — Ferrer, E. Shaywitz, J. Holahan, K. Marchione, and S.

Uncoupling of reading and IQ over time: Empirical evidence for a definition of dyslexia. Psychological Science 21 1 — International Dyslexia Association. Definition of dyslexia. Jencks, C. The black-white test score gap. Kodituwakku, P. Defining the behavioral phenotype in children with fetal alcohol spectrum disorders: A review. Lewin, D. Rosen, S. England, and R.

Preliminary evidence of behavioral and cognitive sequelae of obstructive sleep apnea in children. Sleep Medicine 3 1 :5— Mazzocco, M. Math learning disability and math LD subtypes: Evidence from studies of Turner syndrome, fragile X syndrome, and neurofibromatosis type 1. Journal of Learning Disabilities 34 6 — Murphy, M. Mazzocco, G. Gerner, and A. Mathematics learing disability in girls with Turner syndrome or fragile X syndrome.

Brain and Cognition 61 2 — Pastor, P.