Manual Engineering Studies, Pt. 1-5

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I. Coastal Engineering Research Center works and military construction. — Washington “This pamD / phlet supersedes EP , 15 Jul ” “15 September United States. Planning and management guidance — pt. 2.
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This and other Federal navigation projects on the Oregon and Washington coasts are difficult and expensive to maintain because of high wave energy and a short construction season. The scale of these Pacific projects is difficult to appreciate from aerial photographs: the Siulslaw rubble-mound jetties, first built in , are m apart and the north jetty is m long. The shore in this area consists of long barrier spits interrupted with rocky headlands. In the s Seattle was a timber town and point of embarkation for Alaska and the Orient.

During the s and s, the port has prospered with container traffic and the export of grain and other agricultural products. Areas of the harbor need regular dredging. Photograph July Sometimes the solutions require the use of hard static structures built of rock, steel, or concrete, and sometimes the solutions involve soft dynamic approaches, such as adding littoral material or modifying the vegetation. Chapter V-3, Shore Protection Projects provides a more detailed discussion of the options and limitations available to the coastal engineer.

Minnesota Point, photographed from Duluth, Minnesota, looking south November This bay-mouth sand spit is reputed to be the largest fresh water barrier in the world. It extends from the Wisconsin shore near Superior to the Minnesota shore at Duluth. Louis Bay, to the right, needs regular dredging because of silt and sand supplied by the St.

Louis River. The northern part of Minnesota Point is developed with residential property. Nearby Duluth and Superior are both major industrial centers, accessible by ocean-going ships. Calumet Harbor, Indiana September This is an example of the industrial infrastructure found in many of the Great Lakes cities that thrived from the s until the s. Many of these steel mills are now closed, but some of the sites are being redeveloped for other purposes. Calumet is a Federal navigation project.

The concrete cap on the breakwater in the foreground has shifted, indicating some damage to the underlying wood crib originally built in the s. Duluth Canal, Minnesota November Thanks to the St. Lawrence Seaway and a network of locks, rivers, and canals, deep-draft ocean-going freighters can ship bulk commodities and goods throughout the Great Lakes.

This vessel is taking iron ore from the nearby Mesabe Iron Range to some distant port. Bluffs about 1 km north of St. Joseph Harbor, eastern Lake Michigan November In this area, the sand and clay bluffs are receding at an average rate of between 0. They are highly vulnerable to ground water seepage and, during periods of high lake level, to wave attack. Freshly-slumped clay blocks can be seen on the bluff face in the right side of the image.

Berryhill, H. Campbell, J. Hawaii, Bird, E. Columbia University Press, Encyclopedia. Department of the Army, Corps of Engineers. Kovacs, A. Viking New York, p. Moberly, R. Shepard, Francis P. North America, Coastal Morphology. Editor, Hutchinson Ross Publishing Co. Andrew Morang, Ph. Fiscal year dredging by the U.

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Army Corps of Engineers at coastal projects. The history of coastal engineering reaches back to the ancient world bordering the Mediterranean Sea, the Red Sea, and the Persian Gulf Coastal engineering, as it relates to harbors, starts with the development of maritime traffic, perhaps before B. Shipping was fundamental to culture and the growth of civilization, and the expansion of navigation and communication in turn drove the practice of coastal engineering.

The availability of a large slave labor force during this era meant that docks, breakwaters, and other harbor works were built by hand and often in a grand scale similar to their monumental contemporaries, pyramids, temples, and palaces. Some of the harbor works are still visible today, while others have recently been explored by archaeologists.

Most of the grander ancient harbor works disappeared following the fall of the Roman Empire. Earthquakes have buried some of the works, others have been submerged by subsidence, landlocked by silting, or lost through lack of maintenance. Recently, archaeologists, using modern survey techniques, excavations, and old documents, have revealed some of the sophisticated engineering in these old harbors.

Technically interesting features have shown up and are now reappearing in modern port designs. Common to most ancient ports was a well-planned and effectively located seawall or breakwater for protection and a quay or mole for loading vessels, features frequently included in modern ports Quinn Most ancient coastal efforts were directed to port structures, with the exception of a few places where life depended on coastline protection.

Venice and its lagoon is one such case. Here, sea defenses hydraulic and military were necessary for the survival of the narrow coastal strips, and impressive shore protection works built by the Venetians are still admired.

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Very few written reports on the ancient design and construction of coastal structures have survived. A classic treatise by Vitruvius 27 B. Greek and Latin literature by Herodotus, Josephs, Suetonius, Pliny, Appian, Polibus, Strabo, and others provide limited descriptions of the ancient coastal works.

They understood such phenomena as the Mediterranean currents and wind patterns and the wind-wave cause-effect link. The Romans are credited with first introducing wind roses Franco Most early harbors were natural anchorages in favorable geographical conditions such as sheltered bays behind capes or peninsulas, behind coastal islands, at river mouths, inside lagoons, or in deep coves. Short breakwaters were eventually added to supplement the natural protection. The harbors, used for refuge, unloading of goods, and access to fresh water, were closely spaced to accommodate the safe day-to-day transfer of the shallow draft wooden vessels which sailed coastwise at speeds of only knots.

Ancient ports can be divided into three groups according to their structural patterns and the development of engineering skill Frost The earliest were rock cut, in that natural features like offshore reefs were adapted to give shelter to craft riding at anchor. In the second group, vertical walls were built on convenient shallows to serve as breakwaters and moles.

Harbors of this type were in protected bays, and often the walls connected with the defenses of a walled town for example, ancient Tyre on the Lebanese coast. Often these basins were closeable to traffic using chains to prevent the entry of enemy ships Franco The third group were harbors that were imposed on even unpromising coasts by use of Roman innovations such as the arch and improved hydraulic cement.

Projects like this required the engineering, construction, and financing resources of a major empire. All ancient ports had one thing in common: they had to be kept clear of silt at a time when mechanical dredging was unknown. This was accomplished by various means. One was by designing the outer parts of the harbor so that they deflected silt-bearing currents.

The second was by allowing a controlled current to flow through the port or by flushing it out when necessary by means of channels. For example, at Sidon, a series of tanks like swimming pools were cut into the harbor side of a natural rock reef. The tanks filled with clear water that was held in place with sluice gates. When the gates were opened, currents of clear water would flush the inner harbor. Documentary and archaeological evidence show that both Tyre and Sidon were flourishing and powerful ports from the Bronze Age through the Roman era and must therefore have been kept clear of silt for over a thousand years Frost Another method of preventing silt consisted of diverting rivers through canals so that during part or much of the year, the flow would enter the sea at location well away from the harbor.

The origins of breakwaters are unknown. Inman The breakwater was small and constructed of material taken from nearby dune rock quarries Inman , Figure 4. In the Mediterranean, size and sophistication of breakwaters increased over time as the Egyptian, Phoenician, Greco-Macedonian, and Roman civilizations developed and evolved.

Breakwaters were built in China but generally at a later date than in the Mediterranean. Probably the most sophisticated man-made harbor of this era was the first harbor of Alexandria, Egypt, built west of Pharos Island about B. The main basin, built to accommodate ships about 35 m in length, was 2, m long, m wide and m deep. Large stone blocks were used in the many breakwaters and docks in the harbor.

Alexander the Great and his Greek successors rebuilt the harbor B.

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The Island of Pharos was joined to the mainland by a 1. Alexandria is probably best known for the m-high lighthouse tower used to guide ships on a featureless coast to the port from 50 km at sea. The multi-storied building was built with solid blocks of stone cemented together with melted lead and lined with white stone slabs.

Considered one of the Wonders of the Ancient World, it eventually collapsed due to earthquakes between and Franco , Empereur Another feature of the Greek harbors was the use of colossal statues to mark the entrances. Colossal statues of King Ptolemy, which stood at the base of the lighthouse, have been found with the lighthouse debris.

Historians report the most famous harbor statue was the 30 m high Colossus of Rhodes, which stood on the breakwater heads. Three ancient windmill towers are still surviving upon the Rhodes breakwater Franco Frost notes that the Greeks had used hydraulic cement long before the Romans. The Romans introduced many revolutionary innovations in harbor design. They learned to build walls underwater and constructed solid breakwaters to protect exposed harbors. They used metal joints and clamps to fasten neighboring blocks together and are often credited with discovering hydraulic cement made with pozzolanic ash obtained from the volcanic region near Naples, which hardens underwater.

The Romans replaced many of the Greek nibble mound breakwaters with vertical and composite concrete walls. These monolithic coastal structures could be built rapidly and required little maintenance. In some cases wave reflection may have been used to prevent silting. In most cases, rubble or large stone slabs were placed in front of the walls to protect against toe scour.

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The Romans developed cranes and pile drivers and used them extensively in their construction. This technology also led them to develop dredges. Another advanced technique used for deep-water applications was the watertight floating cellular caisson, precursor of the modern day monolithic breakwater. They also used low, water-surface breakwaters to trip the waves before they reached the main breakwater. The peculiar feature of the vertical wall breakwater at Thapsus Rass Dimas, Tunisia was the presence of vents through the wall to reduce wave impact forces.