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Table of contents
- Emergent Poetics from Whitman to the Digital
- Nineteenth-Century Southern Literature
- Works (128)
- Cambridge Studies in American Literature and Culture | Awards | LibraryThing
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Emergent Poetics from Whitman to the Digital
How do series work? Transforming a Genre, by John P. The American Puritan Elegy: Seeing Double by Lindon Barrett. The Cliffs of Solitude: Correspondence and American Literature, by Elizabeth Hewitt. Cotton Mather and Benjamin Franklin: Empire, Travel, Modernity by Ralph Bauer. Discrepant Engagement by Nathaniel Mackey. Disjunctive Poetics by Peter Quartermain. Ideology and Imagination in America, by Peter Conn. Early Native American Writing: New Critical Essays by Helen Jaskoski.
Matters of Mind and Spirit by Carol J. Emerson and the Conduct of Life: Emily Dickinson and Her Culture: The Ethnography of Manners: Hawthorne, James and Wharton by Nancy Bentley. Failure and the American Writer: A Literary History by Gavin Jones. The Fall into Eden: Landscape and Imagination in California by David Wyatt. From Modernism to Postmodernism: A Grand Army of Black Men: The Great Depression and the Culture of Abundance: How could a republic founded on the ideal of human equality condone slavery or Indian removal? How could a society that promised social mobility and economic advance tolerate widespread oppression of laborers, women, and marginalized ethnic or religious groups?
Stowe presents a gallery of Southern slaveholders, several of whom are well-intentioned and pious and yet are forced by the exigencies of economy or personal misfortune to sell their chattel, who in turn fall into cruel situations. If Stowe offers nuanced portraits of Southerners, she is especially affecting in her depiction of enslaved blacks. The original subtitle of her novel, The Man that Was a Thing , points up the dehumanizing effects of slavery. The prevailing view of blacks, in both the North and the South, was that they were less than human.
Racism was rampant in the North, and enslaved blacks in the South were treated as property to be bought, sold, and, frequently, maltreated. They guffawed at the impish slave girl Topsy and shed thankful tears when she embraced Christianity.
Nineteenth-Century Southern Literature
They were appalled by the sexual exploitation of enslaved woman like Prue and Cassy, and they were horrified by the fatal lashing of the gentle, strong Uncle Tom. Nothing could be further from the truth. Indeed, it is hard to point to a single author of the antebellum period who was not in some way caught up in the political and social currents of the age. Not only was there a substantial body of political writing produced by African Americans, but stirring antislavery works were produced by poets like Whittier, Lowell, and Longfellow and by novelists such as Lydia Maria Child and Richard Hildreth.
Popular culture came into its own in the antebellum period, taking on dimensions that have lasted until this day. Bestselling literature fell into two general categories: This literature, aimed mainly at women, purveyed what modern scholars identify as the cult of true womanhood, promoting the values of piety, purity, domesticity, and submissiveness.
The contrasting genre, sensational literature, included crime pamphlets, penny newspapers, pulp adventure fiction, and the city-mysteries novel. America witnessed a succession of popular crime pamphlets and collections such as Record of Crimes in the United States The Pirates Own Book , and The Lives of the Felons, or American Criminal Calendar , that fed into popular sensational fiction by Joseph Holt Ingraham, Ned Buntline, Sylvanus Cobb, and others, much of it published in so-called mammoth story weeklies.
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This literature, under a thin veil of didacticism, often presented criminals as dashing, clever, or no more corrupt than outwardly respectable types. The engaging villain came in various guises: In the eyes of conservative critics, the engaging villain was a real threat to society. Among the most popular sensational genres of the period was the city-mysteries novel, which transferred Gothic darkness to the complex urban environment. The city was suddenly perceived as a strange and overwhelming place, full of hidden crime, racial and class divisions, violence, and squalor, phenomena reflected in fiction that was volatile and often nightmarish.
American authors tried to outdo each other in the vividness with which they described urban sensations. The winners in this grisly competition were George Lippard and George Thompson. I have known a mother and her son—a father and his daughter—a brother and sister—to be guilty of criminal intimacy.
Edgar Allan Poe knew well the sentimental-domestic and the sensational genres that dominated the literary marketplace. As a reviewer, Poe commented on every sort of literature, from the moralistic to the sensational. At the same time, Poe criticized what he regarded as the excesses of popular sensational fiction. He had no toleration for the common character type of the engaging criminal—the evildoer shown in a positive light.
Simms with that species of delight with which we have seen many a ragged urchin spin a cockchafer [i. The sadism and perversity of which they are guilty is communicated not through extensive descriptions of blood but through portraits of their diseased psychology. Poe at his best brings order and control to the horrific or sensational.
He sculpts terror, using controlling devices such as the first-person narrator, understatement, and singleness of effect. His invention of the detective genre stems from his effort to apply logic and intuitive reason to crimes of the sort that were commonly reported in the penny press. His fascination with codes, cryptograms, puns, and the like shows his overriding concern with various kinds of logic.
Poe, then, was in the ambivalent position of a writer immersed in popular culture and yet in some ways repelled by it. He was simultaneously the alienated genius and the panderer to the mass audience. As magazine editor, fiction-writer, and poet, he knew he had to emphasize the sensational themes that captivated popular readers. By asserting such control in his own works, he produced enduring literary art.
Like Poe, Hawthorne was a professional writer with an eye on the literary market. Unlike Poe, he catered to this market on occasion. One group of his short stories shared the preachiness and optimism of conventional literature. But Hawthorne was also profoundly aware of the contrasting strain in American culture, associated with darkness and violence. Much of his interest in gloomy themes came from his guilt-ridden preoccupation with the Puritan past.
He counted among his ancestors two Puritan leaders, William Hathorne, who persecuted Quakers, and John Hathorne, a judge in the Salem witch trials. Hawthorne probed the harshness of Puritans in his fiction, and their Calvinistic faith provided the basis for his preoccupation with human sin. Hawthorne, however, was neither a Puritan nor a Calvinist.
Instead, he frequently imported into Puritan settings motifs from 19th-century sensational writings. The characters he chose for the novel were common in sensational literature. Hawthorne followed in the wake of popular sensational novelists who used subversive characters to puncture pious pretensions of supposedly respectable people.
Hawthorne used similar characters in his tale of an adulterous woman who was involved with a clergyman and who had a misbehaving child and a vindictive husband with the powers of a demonic pseudoscientist. There were, however, notable differences between The Scarlet Letter and popular novels. Hawthorne put stereotypical characters in a fully realized early New England setting.
He invested these characters, who were portrayed with lip-smacking prurience in popular fiction, with new resonance and depth. Arthur Dimmesdale possesses both the illicit passions of the reverend rake and the conscience of the sincere Puritan preacher. A hypocrite, he is nonetheless truly tormented and humanly believable. Hester Prynne is the adulterous wife but much more as well: Her wayward daughter, Pearl, and her betrayed husband, Roger Chillingworth, come close to being stock characters, but they too have dimensions unseen in popular stereotypes.
Pearl is not just the undisciplined rebel who refuses to recite her catechism; she is also a force for honesty, since she constantly demands that her mother and her paramour publicly confess their love. Even Chillingworth, an unsavory combination of the vengeful cuckold and the satanic pseudoscientist, serves a moral function by helping keep alive a sense of sin within Arthur Dimmesdale.
By placing subversive 19th-century characters in the moral context of bygone Puritan culture, Hawthorne creates a masterpiece of irony, symbolism, and psychological complexity. Having returned in from five years at sea, Melville set out to record some of his experiences in his adventurous early novels Typee and Omoo But, all the while, we cannot forget that he is a murderer.
Melville continued to explore the engaging criminal in his portrayal of the sailor Henry Jackson in Redburn Such paradoxes, many of them rooted in popular culture, culminated in Moby-Dick. The result is a uniquely rich array of paradoxical characters: It is perhaps understandable, given the prominence of culturally based paradoxes in the novel, Melville, when describing the book to Hawthorne, described it paradoxically: The greatest paradox of American democracy, Walt Whitman averred, was the relation between the individual and the mass—or, on the political level, the relation between the separate states and the Union, which, along with slavery, was at issue in the Civil War.
He tried to achieve this balancing act in the lines that opened the Leaves of Grass: Several forms of literature were characterized by narrative discontinuities, oddly juxtaposed imagery, and confusions between dream and reality that were manifested in a centrifugal style. Tocqueville noted that the bumptious, egalitarian spirit of the young American republic yielded a literature that was defiantly disruptive. The style will often be strange, incorrect, overburdened, and loose, and almost always strong and bold.
In the antebellum period, such comic wildness permeated popular forms—including the Crockett almanacs, Old Southwest humor, minstrel shows, frontier sermons—that featured bizarre, kaleidoscopic images and fragmented structure. Styistically, this popular literature was characterized by discontinuity and randomness. The unleashed style of such popular genres reflected centrifugal forces in American culture that the major writers tried to regulate with countervailing centripetal devices.
Emerson combined the centripetal and centrifugal with unique suggestiveness. Emersonian self-reliance is a well-spring of intuition that yields self-confidence and defiance of tradition. Along with this individualist, centripetal tendency in Emerson, however, goes a notably centrifugal one. His sentences are strung together with a looseness that has proven variously inspirational and baffling over the years. This loose form had cultural meaning. Thoreau, like Emerson, was intent on enriching the formlessness of American culture. Rescuing sensational popular images from pointlessness, Thoreau supplied tenors to bizarre linguistic vehicles in order to convey serious social or philosophical ideas.
Such manifestations of the centrifugal style led Poe to regulate popular themes artistically through his original use of centripetal devices. His emphasis on tightness and unity was a direct reaction to the directionlessness he perceived in popular works. Poe carefully pared away excess and utilized first-person narration or ratiocination in the interest of manipulating the irrational. He famously defined plot as that from which nothing can be removed without detriment to the mass.
Controlling the centrifugal throughout the novel are powerful centripetal devices: It incorporates voices and perspectives from many cultural levels, indigenous and international, with unique democratic openness. The result is a polyvalent novel with brief chapters that point in many directions.
Works (128)
So, in productive subjects grow the chapters. Throughout Moby-Dick every potentially anarchic image or character related to formless American culture is fused with some counterbalancing image or character that prevents it from tumbling into thematic bedlam. Such images of human interconnectedness or union can be seen almost everywhere in the novel: Besides incorporating such elements of togetherness and fusion, Melville generates depth and meaning by coupling 19th-century archetypes from classic literature and philosophy.
Moby-Dick absorbs numerous American images and treats them not frivolously or haphazardly but instead takes them seriously, salvages them from the anarchically directionless, and gives them new humanity and mythic reference. The political and ethical tensions created by the slavery crisis were reflected in changing patterns in American literature between , when the infamous Fugitive Slave Act was passed, and , when slavery came to an end after four years of civil war.
While these and other writings vivified African American subjectivity in order to expose the cruelty and injustice of slavery, a sizable body of proslavery works portrayed slavery as a wonderful, time-tested institution, sanctioned by the Bible and the Constitution. For some authors, the social crisis disrupted the balance between the centrifugal and the centripetal that characterized their finest works.
During the Civil War, Hawthorne, who was a Copperhead or Southern-leaning Democrat , lost his sense of artistic direction. At his death in he left behind the manuscripts of several unfinished novels, including The Dolliver Romance and Septimius Felton , whose aimlessness and thinness suggest that he had surrendered to the centrifugal forces he had regulated so masterfully in The Scarlet Letter.
Transforming the confidence man into an impostor who appears under eight avatars with different names, Melville creates a palimpsest of sham appearances, heterogeneous poses, and futile schemes. In his previous fiction, Melville had determinedly transformed cultural images with the aim of bringing new depth and resonance to them. In The Confidence-Man such images become empty signifiers in a shell game, unattached to serious signifieds, mere scraps floating in a premodernist stew. Walt Whitman tried more vigorously than any other writer to staunch the fragmentation of American society.
In the first edition of Leaves of Grass , he offered his poetry as the surest avenue to healing and unity to a nation on the verge of unraveling. He wrote of the American people: The first two editions of Leaves of Grass sold poorly and received generally harsh reviews. Although he continued to write poetry until the end of his life, he realized that what America really needed was fresh leadership. Five years later, as if by a miracle, that president arrived. L—n and W [ illeg. No longer did Whitman feel that he needed to fashion an all-encompassing poetic speaker who would heal the fractured nation.
Whereas the war years brought a sense of resolution to Whitman, they opened up complexity and existential questions for the other great American Renaissance poet, Emily Dickinson. Most of her poems were published when, shortly after her death in , her sister Lavinia discovered the manuscripts of hundreds of poems, many of which were published, with regularized spelling and punctuation, in three volumes , , and edited by family friends Mabel Loomis Todd and Thomas Wentworth Higginson.
Shy and home-centered, Emily Dickinson left her native Massachusetts only once, on an excursion with her father to Washington, D. Like Leaves of Grass , her poetry registers multitudinous cultural voices. Following Whitman and the other major antebellum authors, Dickinson adroitly melds the centripetal and the centrifugal. But in Dickinson, these terms have an utterly different connotation than they do for the others. On the one hand, her poems are centripetal to an unprecedented degree. They are highly compressed in both line length and the number of verses.
Most of them consist of two or more quatrains whose lines alternate between iambic tetrameter and iambic trimeter, adopted from standard hymn meter as established by Isaac Watts. Strong caesurae, usually in the form of dashes, break up her lines, and half rhymes or slant rhymes abound, disrupting standard rhythm. Her poems possess the irregularity and bizarre juxtapositions that Tocqueville associated with the literature of democracy.
Despite her confined lifestyle, she was a voracious reader, and she was immersed in the more chaotic, subversive elements of the culture around her. During her formative period, she got great amusement from the disasters and tragedies that filled the sensational newspapers of the day.
In a poem about American popular culture, she wrote: One early poem 43 is a tiny poetic sensational narrative that describes a road at night haunted by banditti, a wolf, an owl, and a serpent. Another poem 38 portrays a piratelike day burying its treasure in the surrounding hills.
This simplistic use of the sensational imagery is visible in lines like these: It was the bleak side of war that elicited her deepest emotions. In these poems, the centrifugal treatment of death, pain, or depression opens up vistas of suggested meaning without providing answers. The stark physicality of death, the possibility of nothingness beyond the grave, the insignificance of humans in the universe, and the emotional stiffness and time distortion caused by depression: Indeed, her poetry can be viewed as the culmination of many themes that the previous American Renaissance writers had treated from their own perspectives.
Her handling of philosophical skepticism, mental illness, and false appearances reached back to Poe, Hawthorne, and Melville, and there were moments of exuberance in her s poetry that matched even the brightest passages in Emerson, Thoreau, and Whitman. If we hear echoes of previous American Renaissance writers in these lines, there is one area in which Dickinson stands alone: Her ever-shifting speaker took on a range of poses and guises, from the impish Daisy to the imperious Queen, and many in between.
If women writers of the era such as Fanny Fern, Alice Cary, and Louisa May Alcott had converted role-playing into a positive force for women, so Dickinson was empowered by the sheer variety of her poetic performances. Dickinson experienced fragmentation and dispersal of meaning every bit as much as did writers like Melville or Hawthorne. She forged evocatively indeterminate poetry in a time of national division and bloodletting. In her poetry, both the centripetal and the centrifugal forces of democratic America became the essence of a new kind of poetry.
New England Literary Culture: From Revolution to Renaissance. Cambridge University Press, Thoreau, Nature Writing, and the Formation of America. Harvard University Press, Capper, Charles, and Conrad E. The Transcendentalist Movement and Its Contexts. Duke University Press, Love and Death in the American Novel.
Rejecting traditional historicism's premise of neutral inquiry, "New Historicism" accepts the necessity of making historical value judgments. According to "New Historicism," we can only know the textual history of the past because it is "embedded," a key term, in the textuality of the present and its concerns. Text and context are less clearly distinct in New Historicist practice. Traditional separations of literary and non-literary texts, "great" literature and popular literature, are also fundamentally challenged.
For the "New Historicist," all acts of expression are embedded in the material conditions of a culture. Texts are examined with an eye for how they reveal the economic and social realities, especially as they produce ideology and represent power or subversion. Louis Montrose, another major innovator and exponent of "New Historicism," describes a fundamental axiom of the movement as an intellectual belief in "the textuality of history and the historicity of texts. The translation of the work of Mikhail Bakhtin on carnival coincided with the rise of the "New Historicism" and "Cultural Materialism" and left a legacy in work of other theorists of influence like Peter Stallybrass and Jonathan Dollimore.
In its period of ascendancy during the s, "New Historicism" drew criticism from the political left for its depiction of counter-cultural expression as always co-opted by the dominant discourses. However, "New Historicism" continues to exercise a major influence in the humanities and in the extended conception of literary studies. Though the two fields are increasingly finding points of intersection—the work of bell hooks, for example—and are both activist intellectual enterprises, "Ethnic Studies and "Postcolonial Criticism" have significant differences in their history and ideas.
Dubois, we find an early attempt to theorize the position of African-Americans within dominant white culture through his concept of "double consciousness," a dual identity including both "American" and "Negro. Afro-Caribbean and African writers—Aime Cesaire, Frantz Fanon, Chinua Achebe—have made significant early contributions to the theory and practice of ethnic criticism that explores the traditions, sometimes suppressed or underground, of ethnic literary activity while providing a critique of representations of ethnic identity as found within the majority culture.
Ethnic and minority literary theory emphasizes the relationship of cultural identity to individual identity in historical circumstances of overt racial oppression. More recently, scholars and writers such as Henry Louis Gates, Toni Morrison, and Kwame Anthony Appiah have brought attention to the problems inherent in applying theoretical models derived from Euro-centric paradigms that is, structures of thought to minority works of literature while at the same time exploring new interpretive strategies for understanding the vernacular common speech traditions of racial groups that have been historically marginalized by dominant cultures.
Though not the first writer to explore the historical condition of postcolonialism, the Palestinian literary theorist Edward Said's book Orientalism is generally regarded as having inaugurated the field of explicitly "Postcolonial Criticism" in the West. Said argues that the concept of "the Orient" was produced by the "imaginative geography" of Western scholarship and has been instrumental in the colonization and domination of non-Western societies. Moreover, theorists like Homi K. The work of Gayatri C. Spivak has focused attention on the question of who speaks for the colonial "Other" and the relation of the ownership of discourse and representation to the development of the postcolonial subjectivity.
Like feminist and ethnic theory, "Postcolonial Criticism" pursues not merely the inclusion of the marginalized literature of colonial peoples into the dominant canon and discourse. In this respect, "Postcolonial Criticism" is activist and adversarial in its basic aims. Postcolonial theory has brought fresh perspectives to the role of colonial peoples—their wealth, labor, and culture—in the development of modern European nation states. While "Postcolonial Criticism" emerged in the historical moment following the collapse of the modern colonial empires, the increasing globalization of culture, including the neo-colonialism of multinational capitalism, suggests a continued relevance for this field of inquiry.
Gender theory came to the forefront of the theoretical scene first as feminist theory but has subsequently come to include the investigation of all gender and sexual categories and identities. Feminist gender theory followed slightly behind the reemergence of political feminism in the United States and Western Europe during the s. Political feminism of the so-called "second wave" had as its emphasis practical concerns with the rights of women in contemporary societies, women's identity, and the representation of women in media and culture.
These causes converged with early literary feminist practice, characterized by Elaine Showalter as "gynocriticism," which emphasized the study and canonical inclusion of works by female authors as well as the depiction of women in male-authored canonical texts. Feminist gender theory is postmodern in that it challenges the paradigms and intellectual premises of western thought, but also takes an activist stance by proposing frequent interventions and alternative epistemological positions meant to change the social order.
In the context of postmodernism, gender theorists, led by the work of Judith Butler, initially viewed the category of "gender" as a human construct enacted by a vast repetition of social performance. The biological distinction between man and woman eventually came under the same scrutiny by theorists who reached a similar conclusion: Gender theory achieved a wide readership and acquired much its initial theoretical rigor through the work of a group of French feminist theorists that included Simone de Beauvoir, Luce Irigaray, Helene Cixous, and Julia Kristeva, who while Bulgarian rather than French, made her mark writing in French.
French feminist thought is based on the assumption that the Western philosophical tradition represses the experience of women in the structure of its ideas. As an important consequence of this systematic intellectual repression and exclusion, women's lives and bodies in historical societies are subject to repression as well. Their work beyond the descriptive stage becomes an intervention in the history of theoretical discourse, an attempt to alter the existing categories and systems of thought that found Western rationality.
French feminism, and perhaps all feminism after Beauvoir, has been in conversation with the psychoanalytic revision of Freud in the work of Jacques Lacan. Two concepts from Kristeva—the "semiotic" and "abjection"—have had a significant influence on literary theory. Masculine gender theory as a separate enterprise has focused largely on social, literary, and historical accounts of the construction of male gender identities.
Such work generally lacks feminisms' activist stance and tends to serve primarily as an indictment rather than a validation of male gender practices and masculinity. Having long served as the de facto "subject" of Western thought, male identity and masculine gender theory awaits serious investigation as a particular, and no longer universally representative, field of inquiry. Much of what theoretical energy of masculine gender theory currently possesses comes from its ambiguous relationship with the field of "Queer theory.
To "queer" becomes an act by which stable boundaries of sexual identity are transgressed, reversed, mimicked, or otherwise critiqued. Michel Foucault's work on sexuality anticipates and informs the Queer theoretical movement in a role similar to the way his writing on power and discourse prepared the ground for "New Historicism.
Eve Sedgwick is another pioneering theorist of "Queer theory," and like Butler, Sedgwick maintains that the dominance of heterosexual culture conceals the extensive presence of homosocial relations. For Sedgwick, the standard histories of western societies are presented in exclusively in terms of heterosexual identity: Much of the intellectual legacy of "New Historicism" and "Cultural Materialism" can now be felt in the "Cultural Studies" movement in departments of literature, a movement not identifiable in terms of a single theoretical school, but one that embraces a wide array of perspectives—media studies, social criticism, anthropology, and literary theory—as they apply to the general study of culture.
Stuart Hall, Meaghan Morris, Tony Bennett and Simon During are some of the important advocates of a "Cultural Studies" that seeks to displace the traditional model of literary studies. Literary Theory "Literary theory" is the body of ideas and methods we use in the practical reading of literature. What Is Literary Theory? Traditional Literary Criticism Academic literary criticism prior to the rise of "New Criticism" in the United States tended to practice traditional literary history: Formalism and New Criticism "Formalism" is, as the name implies, an interpretive approach that emphasizes literary form and the study of literary devices within the text.
Marxism and Critical Theory Marxist literary theories tend to focus on the representation of class conflict as well as the reinforcement of class distinctions through the medium of literature.
Cambridge Studies in American Literature and Culture | Awards | LibraryThing
Structuralism and Poststructuralism Like the "New Criticism," "Structuralism" sought to bring to literary studies a set of objective criteria for analysis and a new intellectual rigor. New Historicism and Cultural Materialism "New Historicism," a term coined by Stephen Greenblatt, designates a body of theoretical and interpretive practices that began largely with the study of early modern literature in the United States.
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Ethnic Studies and Postcolonial Criticism "Ethnic Studies," sometimes referred to as "Minority Studies," has an obvious historical relationship with "Postcolonial Criticism" in that Euro-American imperialism and colonization in the last four centuries, whether external empire or internal slavery has been directed at recognizable ethnic groups: Gender Studies and Queer Theory Gender theory came to the forefront of the theoretical scene first as feminist theory but has subsequently come to include the investigation of all gender and sexual categories and identities.
Cultural Studies Much of the intellectual legacy of "New Historicism" and "Cultural Materialism" can now be felt in the "Cultural Studies" movement in departments of literature, a movement not identifiable in terms of a single theoretical school, but one that embraces a wide array of perspectives—media studies, social criticism, anthropology, and literary theory—as they apply to the general study of culture. References and Further Reading a. General Works on Theory Culler, Jonathan.
A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press, The Cultural Studies Reader. University of Minnesota Press,