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Table of contents
- Philosophy
- Invisible Hand Definition
- Life, the universe and everything: Let's look at the big questions
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Philosophers who know about the science, she adds, don't think this sort of study is good evidence for the absence of free will, because the experiments are caricatures of decision-making. Even the seemingly simple decision of whether to have tea or coffee is more complex than deciding whether to push a button with one hand or the other.
Haynes stands by his interpretation, and has replicated and refined his results in two studies. One uses more accurate scanning techniques 3 to confirm the roles of the brain regions implicated in his previous work. In the other, which is yet to be published, Haynes and his team asked subjects to add or subtract two numbers from a series being presented on a screen.
Philosophy
Deciding whether to add or subtract reflects a more complex intention than that of whether to push a button, and Haynes argues that it is a more realistic model for everyday decisions. Even in this more abstract task, the researchers detected activity up to four seconds before the subjects were conscious of deciding, Haynes says.
Some researchers have literally gone deeper into the brain. He studied individuals with electrodes implanted in their brains as part of a surgical procedure to treat epilepsy 4. Recording from single neurons in this way gives scientists a much more precise picture of brain activity than fMRI or EEG. Fried's experiments showed that there was activity in individual neurons of particular brain areas about a second and a half before the subject made a conscious decision to press a button. The conscious will might be added on to a decision at a later stage, he suggests.
Philosophers question the assumptions underlying such interpretations.
If neuroscientists find unconscious neural activity that drives decision-making, the troublesome concept of mind as separate from body disappears, as does free will. This 'dualist' conception of free will is an easy target for neuroscientists to knock down, says Glannon. The trouble is, most current philosophers don't think about free will like that, says Mele.
Many are materialists — believing that everything has a physical basis, and decisions and actions come from brain activity. So scientists are weighing in on a notion that philosophers consider irrelevant. Nowadays, says Mele, the majority of philosophers are comfortable with the idea that people can make rational decisions in a deterministic universe. They debate the interplay between freedom and determinism — the theory that everything is predestined, either by fate or by physical laws — but Roskies says that results from neuroscience can't yet settle that debate.
Invisible Hand Definition
They may speak to the predictability of actions, but not to the issue of determinism. Neuroscientists also sometimes have misconceptions about their own field, says Michael Gazzaniga, a neuroscientist at the University of California, Santa Barbara. In particular, scientists tend to see preparatory brain activity as proceeding stepwise, one bit at a time, to a final decision. He suggests that researchers should instead think of processes working in parallel, in a complex network with interactions happening continually. The time at which one becomes aware of a decision is thus not as important as some have thought.
There are conceptual issues — and then there is semantics.
Life, the universe and everything: Let's look at the big questions
Even within philosophy, definitions of free will don't always match up. Some philosophers define it as the ability to make rational decisions in the absence of coercion. Some definitions place it in cosmic context: at the moment of decision, given everything that's happened in the past, it is possible to reach a different decision. Others stick to the idea that a non-physical 'soul' is directing decisions. Neuroscience could contribute directly to tidying up definitions, or adding an empirical dimension to them.
It might lead to a deeper, better understanding of what freely willing something involves, or refine views of what conscious intention is, says Roskies. Mele is directing the Templeton Foundation project that is beginning to bring philosophers and neuroscientists together. Some informal meetings have already begun. Roskies, who is funded through the programme, plans to spend time this year in the lab of Michael Shadlen, a neurophysiologist at the University of Washington in Seattle who works on decision-making in the primate brain. Haggard has Templeton funding for a project in which he aims to provide a way to objectively determine the timing of conscious decisions and actions, rather than rely on subjective reports.
His team plans to devise an experimental set-up in which people play a competitive game against a computer while their brain activity is decoded. Another project, run by Christof Koch, a bioengineer at the California Institute of Technology in Pasadena, will use techniques similar to Fried's to examine the responses of individual neurons when people use reason to make decisions.
His team hopes to measure how much weight people give to different bits of information when they decide. Philosophers are willing to admit that neuroscience could one day trouble the concept of free will. Imagine a situation philosophers like to do this in which researchers could always predict what someone would decide from their brain activity, before the subject became aware of their decision. Still, even those who have perhaps prematurely proclaimed the death of free will agree that such results would have to be replicated on many different levels of decision-making.
Pressing a button or playing a game is far removed from making a cup of tea, running for president or committing a crime. The practical effects of demolishing free will are hard to predict. Biological determinism doesn't hold up as a defence in law. Legal scholars aren't ready to ditch the principle of personal responsibility. Owen Jones, a law professor at Vanderbilt University in Nashville, Tennessee, who directs a similar project funded by the MacArthur Foundation in Chicago, Illinois, suggests that the research could help to identify an individual's level of responsibility.
That could affect the severity of a sentence, for example. The answers could also end up influencing people's behaviour. In , Kathleen Vohs, a social psychologist at the University of Minnesota in Minneapolis, and her colleague Jonathan Schooler, a psychologist now at the University of California, Santa Barbara, published a study 5 on how people behave when they are prompted to think that determinism is true.
They asked their subjects to read one of two passages: one suggesting that behaviour boils down to environmental or genetic factors not under personal control; the other neutral about what influences behaviour. The participants then did a few maths problems on a computer.
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But just before the test started, they were informed that because of a glitch in the computer it occasionally displayed the answer by accident; if this happened, they were to click it away without looking. Those who had read the deterministic message were more likely to cheat on the test. Haynes's research and its possible implications have certainly had an effect on how he thinks.
He remembers being on a plane on his way to a conference and having an epiphany. Fried, too, finds it impossible to keep determinism at the top of his mind. I certainly don't think about it when I operate on the human brain. Mele is hopeful that other philosophers will become better acquainted with the science of conscious intention.
And where philosophy is concerned, he says, scientists would do well to soften their stance.
Soon, C. Nature Neurosci. Libet, B.