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Table of contents

There is a tn21 transposon-like gene to the right end of mer operon gene cluster. The genome also possessed copper, zinc, and cadmium resistance-associated genes Table 2.

In the island, two version of aioA gene were detected in two overlapping reading frames. The genome also contained a complete mercury resistance operon merRTPADE gene island near to the arsenite oxidizing aio operonic gene island. The distance between these two islands was 2, bp with only one gene putative phosphatase in-between. The chromosome of A. Synteny analysis with other metal converting bacteria showed that the genomic organization of these resistance island has significant distinction and content similarity with other metal resistant bacteria Fig.

Present genes were involved in several different antibiotic resistance mechanisms by enzymatic degradation and efflux pump systems. Using in vitro antimicrobial susceptibility tests, the bacteria showed resistance showed resistance against beta lactams from narrow spectrum to broad-spectrum penicillin, 1st generation to 3rd generation cephalosporins, aminoglycosides, monobactam, and macrolides, whereas it showed susceptibility to polymyxin B, tetracycline, nitrofuran and moderate susceptibility to 4th generation ciprofloxacin, chloramphenicol, and nalidixic acid Table 4.

These resistances suggest the possible expression of detected antibiotic resistance genes within the bacterium. Within the genome one pili gene cluster associated with bacterial movement was also present. In addition to the metal and antibiotic resistance, these bacteria possess several genes that may be associated with its defense mechanism and bacterial pathogenesis. Pathway reconstruction for the genes of A.

In the genome these detected pathways are distributed under five major KEGG pathway categories including cellular process, metabolism, environmental information processing, genetic information processing, and human diseases Fig. BHW possesses several genes that are associated with different type of adaptation supporting pathways that might help the bacteria being robust in its life span. These pathways include motility, flagellar assembly, quorum sensing, biofilm formation; biosynthesis of vitamin, co-factors, folate, one carbon pool, secondary metabolites like terpinoids, polyketides etc.

Moreover, several xenobiotic degradation metabolism pathways like amino benzoate degradation, cytochrome P were also found supported according to the genomic context. According to AntiSMASH, the genome possesseses five secondary metabolite gene clusters with 14 putative gene clusters.

Introduction

Detected secondary metabolites include ectoin osmolites protective substance Bernard et al. The genome analysis helps to achieve a pertinent inference for the coexistence of metal and antibiotic resistance genes. The isolate was retrieved from an arsenic contaminated tubewell water. Therefore, it can be expected to find some sort of As resistance in the genome.

Presence of such dual system was previously reported in highly efficient arsenite oxidizing bacteria Achromobacter arsenitoxydans SY8 Li et al. Analysis of synteny found that such organization of aio was quite distinctive. A possible way for such organization to function in arsenite oxidation is, AioS sense the As III in the environment generating proper signal to activate other genes, AioX binds and transport the arsenite into the cell, aioBA encodes the oxidase enzyme which converts arsenite to arsenate, CytC accepts the electron and transport to the cellular electron transport chain and finally the system is controlled by the arsenical resistance repressor gene in the right end of the operon.

Such arrangement of arsenate reductase was similar to other high arsenate metabolizing bacteria. Notably, both of the aio and ars operons were similar to high arsenic transforming Herminimonas sp. While Herminimonas sp. However, how these two As oxidation-reduction systems are regulated in the bacterial cell in an aquatic environment is not clearly understood. Considering the functions and the genetic organization a possible mechanism for the regulation of these two systems can be deduced. In which, both operons can either work individually and efflux out converted arsenate aio and arsenite ars or work as a unit where environmental arsenite is converted to arsenate inside the cell by aio operonic genes and then re-converted upon expedition of deposition tolerance, to arsenite ArsC , leading to the eviction ArsB from the cell by ars operon.

Thus, detoxification of arsenite and arsenate is performed Carlin et al. This mercury resistance mer operon was found juxtaposed to aio 2, bp gap with a putative phosphatase gene in between. In response, bacteria develop metal resistance by efflux, reduction, detoxification, or biofilm formation Harrison et al. In a similar manner, the genome harbors several antibiotic resistance genes responsible for beta-lactamase, aminoglycosides, MDR efflux pumps, and MDR tripartite system.

Detected bL and blC genes encode for beta-lactamase and other penicillin binding protein protecting against beta-lactam ring inhibiting antibiotics Neu, Also, in supportive manner, pathway analysis showed that these genes support a complete beta-lactam resistance pathway. In the antibiotic susceptibility test, the isolate showed resistance against almost all beta-lactams such as penicillin, 1st—3rd generation cephalosporin, monobactam, and moderately sensitive to the 4th generation cephalosporin.


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The isolate also found resistant to aminoglycosides with adaA1 and adaA2 adenyl transferase genes protecting against protein synthesis inhibition, along with moderately sensitive to chloramphenicol and quinolone. Thus, A. With some deviation these antibiotic resistance genes were also found in other A. Therefore, all these antimicrobial resistance genes might have been active within the genome that satisfy the explanation for such broad range antimicrobial resistance activity showed by the isolate.

This broad metal and antibiotic resistance scenario indicates the evolutionary adaptation and resistance development of the bacteria by high selective pressure in the environment. In the genome, presence of pili genes for motility and stress tolerating genes for heat-cold shock, detoxification, osmotic pressure, carbon starvation, dormancy, etc.

In addition, three phage signatures in the chromosome also indicate bacterial adaptation and recovery against phage attack. These three phage regions Fig.


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It is not known if these phage immunities have some effect with such high metal—antibiotic resistance or vice-verse but it shows a possibility that this resistance potential might somehow facilitate the bacteria to overcome phage attacks. Hence, considering the co-existence phenomenon, some questions arise like how this bacterium could have achieved such antibiotic and metal cross resistances in the natural aquatic environment, how these two different resistance might interact with each other and is there any impact of one resistance to the regulation of the other one.

A whole genome study of pathogenic strain A. But there was a significant difference in the metal and antibiotic resistome. Occupational physical activity is associated with job performance. According to the metabolic pathway, which is mainly involved in energy production of any particular type of activity, physical activity also can be distinguished into aerobic and anaerobic Giannuzzi et al. The recommendations are different for different age groups. Adults aged 18—64 should do at least minutes of moderate-intensity aerobic physical activity throughout the week or do at least 75 minutes of vigorous-intensity aerobic physical activity throughout the week or an equivalent combination of moderate- and vigorous-intensity activity.

Aerobic activity should be performed in bouts of at least 10 minutes duration. For additional health benefits, adults should increase their moderate-intensity aerobic physical activity to minutes per week, or engage in minutes of vigorous- intensity aerobic physical activity per week, or an equivalent combination of moderate- and vigorous-intensity activity.

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Muscle-strengthening activities should be done involving major muscle groups on 2 or more days a week In , the Centers for Disease Control CDC and the American College of Sports Medicine ACSM also recommended that adult people should engage in at least 30 minutes of moderate intensity physical activity on most or preferably all days of the week Agarwal, With the increasing level of physical activity and cardio respiratory fitness, the risk of dying during a period keeps declining and it is true for a broad range of age and both sex.

Even after controlling the potential confounders like existence of sub-clinical disease or individuals association with other healthy habits, some studies observed an inverse association between physical activity and all-cause mortality Giannuzzi et al. Aerobic physical activity has a biologically plausible effect on cardiovascular risk factors. Improvement of maximal oxygen output and peripheral oxygen extraction contribute to this process ACSM, Aerobic exercise decrease the likelihood of myocardial infarction by reducing the myocardial oxygen demands for the same level of work performed Fletcher et al.

Studies in animals proved that coronary circulation can be greatly modified by aerobic exercise.

Original Research ARTICLE

Regular exercise has its antithrombotic effect by decreasing platelet adhesiveness, improving the endothelial function and reducing the arrhythmic risk by a modulation of autonomic balance Billman, ; Hambrecht et al. Reduction of established high blood pressure and prevention of developing blood pressure is also possible by aerobic exercise Agarwal, ; Giannuzzi et al. It can increase the level of high density lipoprotein HDL or reduce dyslipidemia Agarwal, ; Yoshida et al.

With all these effect aerobic exercise reduce the risk profile and the chance of development of atherosclerosis; hence reduce the risk of cardiovascular mortality. A graded inverse relationship was found out between physical activity and the risk of cardiovascular related death among women in a systematic literature review. Where, the most active women showed a relative risk of 0. In Honolulu heart program, elderly men, who walked more than 1. Moderate physical activity done in leisure time by post-menopausal women showed association with the reduced risk of coronary heart disease Kushi, et al.

Even only walking can also play a cardio protective role Manson et al, Occupational physical activity has also effect on reducing CVD. An evaluation of physical activity and risk of coronary heart disease by Taylor et al. Physical inactivity associated with sedentary lifestyle increase the cardiovascular event and premature death. The risk of myocardial infarction increases while people have the ownership of a car or TV Held et al. Exercise training in the setting of secondary prevention of CVDs is exclusively for the purpose of improvement of cardiovascular fitness.

Physical activity can not only reduce the cardio vascular risk, but also its benefit extends to the patients with established CVDs Jolliffe et al. Results of several systematic reviews suggest that regular physical activity can attenuate or reverse the disease process in cardiovascular patient Wartburton et al.

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Study proved that exercise capacity is the most powerful predictor of cardiovascular mortality than any other risk factors. An inverse dose response relationship was proved between cardio vascular fitness and mortality in a population of cardiovascular patient in this study Myers et al. The mechanisms of secondary prevention of CVDs by physical activity or exercise training are the same as for primary prevention.