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Jun 24, - Introduction: Sensing and Perceiving with Light and Dark Both the production of a sense of place and defamiliarization resonate in Chris.
Table of contents
- Looking for the Light When There’s Darkness
- Editorial Reviews
- Shades of Light & Darkness
- Separation of Light from Darkness, by Michelangelo
During the visual experiment, words were shown as dark letters 8. Because we wanted to compare pupillary responses to words conveying brightness or darkness, these two categories needed to be matched as accurately as possible. Visual intensity was matched by selecting words that had approximately the same number of letters, then generating images of these words, and finally iteratively resizing these images until the visual intensity i.
For the control experiment, in which we varied the valence of words, we selected 60 words that were rated for valence by Bonin et al. Positive words e.
- How Little We Know;
- Genre, Shelter and other places of Exile;
- Mandalorian vs. TIE Fighter: Who Would Win?;
For all experiments, stimuli were manually selected on the basis of strict criteria. Our sample size of around 30 words per condition was therefore a compromise between having well-matched stimuli and having a reasonable number of observations per participant and condition.
Thirty naive observers age range: 18—54 years; 21 women, 9 men participated in the visual experiment. Thirty other naive observers participated in the auditory experiment age range: 18—31 years; 19 women, 11 men.
Looking for the Light When There’s Darkness
Finally, 30 naive observers participated in the control experiment, four of whom had also participated in the auditory experiment age range: 18—31 years; 19 women, 11 men. We used two to three times as many participants per experiment as in most previous studies on the pupillary light response e. Stimuli were presented on a in. Testing took place in a dimly lit room. At the beginning of each session, a nine-point eye-tracker calibration was performed.
Before each trial, a single-point recalibration drift correction was performed. Each trial started with a dark central fixation dot on a gray background for 3 s. Next, a word was presented. In the visual experiment and the control experiment, the word was presented in the center of the screen for 3 s or until the participant pressed the space bar; in the auditory experiment, the word was played back through a set of desktop speakers, and the experiment paused for 3 s or until the participants pressed the space bar.
For all words conveying brightness or darkness, we collected normative ratings from 30 naive observers age range: 18—29 years; 17 women, 13 men , most of whom had not participated in the pupillometry experiments. Words were presented one at a time and using the same images used for the visual pupillometry experiment, together with a five-point rating scale. Brightness and valence were rated in separate blocks, the order of which was counterbalanced across participants.
No participants were excluded from the analysis. The main results for the visual and auditory experiments are shown in Figure 1 , in which pupil size is plotted over time from word onset, separately for words conveying brightness, words conveying darkness, and neutral words. As predicted, pupils were smaller when participants read or heard words conveying brightness compared with words conveying darkness.
This effect was present for both visually presented words Fig. The effect arose gradually and slowly, and it peaked between 1 and 2 s after word onset. For neutral words, which did not convey a specific sense of brightness, pupil size was intermediate. Proportional change in pupil size as a function of time, separately for words conveying brightness, words conveying darkness, and neutral words.
Editorial Reviews
Results are shown for the a visual experiment and b auditory experiment. The vertical dotted lines indicate the mean response time to animal words. In addition to the effect of semantic brightness, in the visual experiment, there was a pronounced pupillary dilation that peaked around 0. This early pupillary response was not clearly modulated by the semantic brightness of the words and was followed by the pronounced constriction that always follows visual changes e.
In the auditory experiment, there was no visual stimulation to trigger pupillary constriction, and pupils therefore dilated throughout the trial, with no clear distinction between the early orienting response and later dilation due to task-related effort.
Shades of Light & Darkness
Pupil size is reported as a proportion of pupil size at word onset and was smoothed with a ms Hanning window. Only words conveying brightness or darkness were carefully matched see the Method section , and therefore only these two categories were included in statistical tests. However, including all words yielded similar results; see the Supplemental Material available online. For each ms window, we conducted a linear-mixed effects model using the lme4 package Version 1.
In this model, pupil size was the dependent variable, and semantic brightness bright or dark was the fixed effect; we used random by-participant intercepts and slopes. We commonly use a significance threshold of at least contiguous milliseconds in which p is less than. To estimate p values, we interpreted t values as though they were z values i. This approach was anticonservative, but only slightly so given our sample size Luke, With this criterion, the semantic-brightness effect was reliable from 1, to 2, ms and from 2, to 2, ms in the visual experiment and from 1, to 1, ms in the auditory experiment.
However, Figure 1 shows significant differences in pupil size between words conveying brightness and words conveying darkness as determined using three alpha thresholds and no minimum number of contiguous samples. To test how general the effect was, we also looked at mean pupil size during the 1- to 2-s window for individual participants and words. For the visual experiment, the Bayes factor BF was For the visual experiment, the BF was 6.
The results were similar when we analyzed the full 3 s of the trials rather than only the 1- to 2-s window see the Supplemental Material. Results for individual participants top row and individual words bottom row.
Mean proportional pupil-size change in the a visual experiment and b auditory experiment is presented separately for each participant. The data points are ordered by the magnitude of the difference in change in pupil size, which was calculated as pupil size for words conveying darkness minus pupil size for words conveying brightness. Mean proportion of pupil size relative to size at word onset in the c visual experiment and d auditory experiment is presented separately for each of the words conveying darkness and words conveying brightness.
The data points are ordered by the magnitude of the change in pupil size. Pupil size was measured during the 1- to 2-s window after stimulus onset. To test whether the effect of semantic brightness could be due to differences in valence or emotional intensity, we analyzed the subjective ratings for semantic brightness, valence positive or negative , and emotional intensity of all words. First, participants rated words on a scale from 1 bright to 5 dark.
The correlation between brightness and valence was so strong that we could not control for it statistically. Therefore, we conducted a control experiment in which we looked at the pupillary response to positive and negative words that had no association with brightness. If valence had been a confound in our main experiments, pupils would have been considerably larger in response to negative words than to positive words. This control experiment also showed that emotional intensity i. Given that the correlation between brightness and emotional intensity was only weak, we could take the effect of emotional intensity into account statistically by conducting a control analysis that was identical to the regression analysis described earlier but included emotional intensity as control predictor.
Separation of Light from Darkness, by Michelangelo
Conducted using the same criteria as described earlier, this analysis again revealed in both experiments an effect of brightness that was reliable and in the expected direction. During the visual experiment, the effect was observed between 1, and 2, ms after word onset; during the auditory experiment, the effect was observed between and 1, ms. In the auditory experiment, we also observed an effect between 90 and ms; given that this effect was small and extremely early, it was probably spurious. In summary, it is theoretically and statistically unlikely that the effect of semantic brightness on pupil size was driven by differences in the valence and emotional intensity of our stimuli.
This effect arises slowly and gradually and, in our experiments, peaked between 1 and 2 s after word onset. Our findings have important implications for theories about how motor and sensory simulations arise during language comprehension. Our starting premise was that there is a cognitive pupillary response to light i.
Our findings therefore suggest that word comprehension can induce activity in nonlinguistic visual brain areas, and can even trigger involuntary responses e. This finding is consistent with results of previous behavioral studies showing that word meaning can modulate actions e. However, in previous studies, actions were not triggered by word meaning per se but were imposed by the task and voluntarily performed by the participants e.
Our findings extend these studies by showing that word meaning alone is sufficient to trigger a response that is not imposed by the task i. Is pupillary constriction merely a nonfunctional by-product of reading words conveying brightness, or does it serve some function? If the latter, what might that function be? Therefore, our results do not reveal whether word representations are strongly embodied consist, in part, of sensory and motor simulations or are not instead are accompanied by sensory and motor simulations; Mahon, However, our results do show that word meaning triggers mental simulations and can even trigger physiological i.