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Table of contents
African-American history
In , John Casor , a black indentured servant in colonial Virginia, was the first man to be declared a slave in a civil case. He had claimed to an officer that his master, Anthony Johnson , himself a free black , had held him past his indenture term. A neighbor, Robert Parker, told Johnson that if he did not release Casor, he would testify in court to this fact.
Under local laws, Johnson was at risk for losing some of his headright lands for violating the terms of indenture. Under duress, Johnson freed Casor. Casor entered into a seven years' indenture with Parker. Feeling cheated, Johnson sued Parker to repossess Casor. A Northampton County, Virginia court ruled for Johnson, declaring that Parker illegally was detaining Casor from his rightful master who legally held him "for the duration of his life". During the colonial period, the status of enslaved people was affected by interpretations related to the status of foreigners in England. England had no system of naturalizing immigrants to its island or its colonies.
Since persons of African origins were not English subjects by birth, they were among those peoples considered foreigners and generally outside English common law. The colonies struggled with how to classify people born to foreigners and subjects. In Virginia, Elizabeth Key Grinstead , a mixed-race woman, successfully gained her freedom and that of her son in a challenge to her status by making her case as the baptized Christian daughter of the free Englishman Thomas Key.
Her attorney was an English subject, which may have helped her case. He was also the father of her mixed-race son, and the couple married after Key was freed. Shortly after the Elizabeth Key trial and similar challenges, in the Virginia royal colony approved a law adopting the principle of partus sequitur ventrem called partus , for short , stating that any children born in the colony would take the status of the mother.
A child of an enslaved mother would be born into slavery, regardless if the father were a freeborn Englishman or Christian.
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This was a reversal of common law practice in England, which ruled that children of English subjects took the status of the father. The change institutionalized the skewed power relationships between those who enslaved people and enslaved women, freed white men from the legal responsibility to acknowledge or financially support their mixed-race children, and somewhat confined the open scandal of mixed-race children and miscegenation to within the slave quarters. In , King Charles II rechartered the Royal African Company it had initially been set up in , as an English monopoly for the African slave and commodities trade—thereafter in , by statute, the English parliament opened the trade to all English subjects.
The Virginia Slave codes of further defined as slaves those people imported from nations that were not Christian. Native Americans who were sold to colonists by other Native Americans from rival tribes , or captured by Europeans during village raids, were also defined as slaves. In , the Georgia Trustees enacted a law prohibiting slavery in the new colony, which had been established in to enable the "worthy poor" as well as persecuted European Protestants to have a new start.
Slavery was then legal in the other twelve English colonies. Neighboring South Carolina had an economy based on the use of enslaved labor. The Georgia Trustees wanted to eliminate the risk of slave rebellions and make Georgia better able to defend against attacks from the Spanish to the south, who offered freedom to escaped enslaved people.
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James Edward Oglethorpe was the driving force behind the colony, and the only trustee to reside in Georgia. He opposed slavery on moral grounds as well as for pragmatic reasons, and vigorously defended the ban on slavery against fierce opposition from Carolina merchants of enslaved people and land speculators. The Protestant Scottish highlanders who settled what is now Darien, Georgia , added a moral anti-slavery argument, which became increasingly rare in the South, in their "Petition of the Inhabitants of New Inverness".
As economic conditions in England began to improve in the first half of the 18th century, workers had no reason to leave, especially to face the risks in the colonies. During most of the British colonial period, slavery existed in all the colonies. People enslaved in the North typically worked as house servants, artisans, laborers and craftsmen, with the greater number in cities. Many men worked on the docks and in shipping. In , more than 42 percent of New York City households enslaved people, the second-highest proportion of any city in the colonies after Charleston, South Carolina.
By there were , Blacks in a population of 2. They were unevenly distributed. There were 14, in New England where they were 2. The South developed an agricultural economy dependent on commodity crops. Its planters rapidly acquired a significantly higher number and proportion of enslaved people in the population overall, as its commodity crops were labor-intensive. Before then long-staple cotton was cultivated primarily on the Sea Islands of Georgia and South Carolina. The invention of the cotton gin in enabled the cultivation of short-staple cotton in a wide variety of mainland areas, leading to the development of large areas of the Deep South as cotton country in the 19th century.
Rice cultivation and tobacco were very labor-intensive. They also worked in the artisanal trades on large plantations and in many southern port cities. Backwoods subsistence farmers, the later wave of settlers in the 18th century who settled along the Appalachian Mountains and backcountry, seldom held enslaved people. Some of the British colonies attempted to abolish the international slave trade , fearing that the importation of new Africans would be disruptive.
Virginia bills to that effect were vetoed by the British Privy Council. Rhode Island forbade the import of enslaved people in All of the colonies except Georgia had banned or limited the African slave trade by ; Georgia did so in Some [ which? Slaves transported to America: [40]. The great majority of enslaved Africans were transported to sugar colonies in the Caribbean and to Brazil. As life expectancy was short, their numbers had to be continually replenished.
Life expectancy was much higher in the U. The number of enslaved people in the U. From to , the rate of natural growth of North American enslaved people was much greater than for the population of any nation in Europe, and it was nearly twice as rapid as that of England. The white population from 3. The percentage of the Black population went from Louisiana was founded as a French colony. This resulted in a different pattern of slavery in Louisiana, purchased in , compared to the rest of the United States.
Although it authorized and codified cruel corporal punishment against slaves under certain conditions, it forbade slave owners from torturing them or separating married couples or to separate young children from their mothers. It also required the owners to instruct slaves in the Catholic faith. Together with a more permeable historic French system that allowed certain rights to gens de couleur libres free people of color , who were often born to white fathers and their mixed-race concubines, a far higher percentage of African Americans in Louisiana were free as of the census Most of Louisiana's "third class" of free people of color, situated between the native-born French and mass of African slaves, lived in New Orleans.
The mixed-race offspring creoles of color from these unions were among those in the intermediate social caste of free people of color. The English colonies, in contrast, insisted on a binary system that treated mulatto and black slaves equally under the law, and discriminated against equally if free. But many free people of African descent were mixed race. When the U. They officially discouraged interracial relationships although white men continued to have unions with black women, both enslaved and free.
The Americanization of Louisiana gradually resulted in a binary system of race, causing free people of color to lose status as they were grouped with the slaves. They lost certain rights as they became classified by American whites as officially "black". While a smaller number of African slaves were kept and sold in England, [51] slavery in Great Britain had not been authorized by statute there. In , it was made unenforceable at common law in England and Wales by a legal decision. The large British role in the international slave trade continued until Slavery flourished in most of Britain's colonies, with many wealthy slave owners living in England and holding considerable power.
In early Lord Dunmore , royal governor of Virginia and slave-owner, wrote to Lord Dartmouth of his intent to free slaves owned by Patriots in case of rebellion. Slaves owned by Loyalist masters, however, were unaffected by Dunmore's Proclamation. About slaves owned by Patriots escaped and joined Dunmore's forces. Most died of disease before they could do any fighting.
Three hundred of these freed slaves made it to freedom in Britain. Many slaves used the very disruption of war to escape their plantations and fade into cities or woods. In the closing months of the war, the British evacuated 20, freedmen from major coastal cities, transporting more than 3, for resettlement in Nova Scotia , where they were registered as Black Loyalists and eventually granted land.
They transported others to the Caribbean islands, and some to England.
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At the same time, the British were transporting Loyalists and their slaves, primarily to the Caribbean, but some to Nova Scotia. For example, over 5, enslaved Africans owned by Loyalists were transported in with their owners from Savannah to Jamaica and St. Augustine, Florida then controlled by Britain.
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Similarly, over half of the black people evacuated in from Charleston by the British to the West Indies and Florida were slaves owned by white Loyalists. Slaves and free blacks also fought on the side of rebels during the Revolutionary War. Washington authorized slaves to be freed who fought with the American Continental Army. Rhode Island started enlisting slaves in , and promised compensation to owners whose slaves enlisted and survived to gain freedom.
In the 18th century, Britain became the world's largest slave trader. Starting in , the Patriots outlawed the importation of slaves state by state. They all acted to end the international trade but after the war it was later reopened in South Carolina and Georgia.