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That makes a total nine new candidates who were needed for us to make up a full complement of 50 entries for our updated list we saw no reason to demote anyone who was on the old list and who still qualified. We have indicated the nine newbies in the list below with the word "new" next to their names.

For the sake of documentation, we have also moved the nine original entries that have now been replaced to an appendix at the end of the article. He received his PhD. He has taught at several prestigious universities in Israel and the U. He is best known for his co-discovery of the Aharonov-Bohm effect in In this phenomenon, the complex phase of a charged particle's wave function becomes coupled to an electromagnetic potential, in spite of the particle's being confined to a region in which the EM field has a zero value.

Aspect was born in Agen, a town in the Aquitaine region of southwestern France.

He graduated from a regional university and was working as a lecturer in when he led a team that performed experiments confirming the correctness of Bell's Theorem, stating that either the realism condition or the locality condition on elementary particles must fail. Aspect's experimental apparatus was of the two-channel type, in which a light source is split into two beams, which are then passed through polarisers with randomized settings. When the polarities of the two beams were subsequently measured, they were found to be statistically correlated.

This finding has been interpreted to mean that the locality condition is indeed violated quantum non-locality is real.

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Efimov was born in Leningrad now St. Petersburg , in the former Soviet Union, and received his Ph. Ioffe Physico-Technical Institute there in His advisors were Miron Ya. Amusia and Lev A. He relocated to the U. In , while a junior scientist at the Ioffe Institute, he published a landmark paper predicting that a stable quantum state of matter exists consisting of three atoms, no two of which are stable in the absence of the third. Such "Efimov states," or "Efimov trimers," have been likened to Borromean rings above.

Widely disbelieved at the time it was made, Efimov's prediction was confirmed in when such quantum trimers of cesium atoms were experimentally observed at very low temperatures by a team at the University of Innsbruck , in Austria. He received his Ph. After several short-term academic appointments, he landed a job with the Los Alamos National Laboratory in New Mexico to study the difficult problem of turbulence in fluids.

Although he was unable to solve the general problem of turbulence in fluid dynamics which remains unsolved to this day , the work upon which his reputation would eventually be based grew directly out of his work on turbulence at Los Alamos. In , while studying the pattern of period-doubling bifurcations of the logistic map, Feigenbaum noticed that the ratio of the difference between the values at which such successive bifurcations occur tends to a constant of about 4.

He soon saw that this numbernow known as the "first Feigenbaum constant"should occur within a wide class of mathematical functions nonlinear dynamical systems , presaging the transition of the system to the chaotic regime turbulence. This was the first universality class discovered for nonlinear systems, making their study more tractable mathematically, and so more useful in practical applications.

Guth was born in New Brunswick, New Jersey. He is currently the Victor F. Guth began his career working in particle physics, but soon switched to cosmology. In , he began developing the theory that would become known as "cosmic inflation," and first published his work in Cosmic inflation is the idea that at a very early time approximately 10 s. Guth theorized that this expansion was driven by a positive vacuum energy density negative vacuum pressure. In , an orbiting telescopethe Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe WMAP provided observational evidence corroborating the cosmic inflation hypothesis.

Hau was born in Denmark, and received her Ph. She was a post-doctoral fellow at Harvard University, and taught at Cambridge University, before returning to Harvard, where she is now the Mallinckrodt Professor of Physics and Applied Physics. In , Hau's team at Harvard was able to slow a beam of light down to about 17 meters per second by manipulating the photons using ultra-cold superfluids and Bose-Einstein condensates.

In , they succeeded in halting a beam of light altogether, then releasing it. In more recent work, Hau has experimented with encrypting and transmitting information with these techniques. Though it remains highly experimental, her work has the potential to revolutionize all forms of communication and information processing, perhaps even providing the basis for quantum computation.

Pitaevskii or Pitayevsky was born in Saratov, in the former Soviet Union. He graduated from the university there in In , he entered the prestigious Institute for Physical Problems in Moscow later, the Kapitsa Institute , where he studied under the celebrated physicist Lev D. In , he published an equation independently discovered the same year by Eugene P. Gross , which has become the standard formalism for treating Bose-Einstein condensates BEC , whose existence had been predicted by S. Bose and Albert Einstein in the s.

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A BEC is a very-low-temperature state of matter in which distinct bosons elementary or composite particles having integer spin merge, occupying the same quantum state. In , the first gaseous BEC, consisting of rubidium atoms, was observed experimentally at the University of ColoradoBoulder. He joined the faculty of the University of Texas at Austin that same year, where he has remained ever since. Bard and his team invented the scanning electrochemical microscope, which makes possible the high-resolution imaging and study of surfaces and chemical reactions at the nanometer scale.

A pioneer in techniques for studying and manipulating individual molecules, Bard's work has led to many applications in medicine identification of cancer cells and alternative energy technology semiconductors for solar cells. She received her Ph. She also did a postdoc at the University of Colorado Boulder with Thomas Cech, the Nobel Prize--winning chemist who originally discovered ribozymes. In the lab she has run at Berkeley since , she first concentrated on structural studies of ribozymes, the IRES internal ribosome entry site , and protein-RNA complexes such as the SRP signal recognition particle.

The Broad Institute group has contested the Berkeley group's priority, and a patent judge has ruled in their favora ruling that is sure to be appealed, as not only prestige but hundreds of millions or dollars if not more are at stake. So, stay tuned. He received his diploma in chemical engineering from the Institute for Industrial Chemistry and Physics in Lyon in He then left for the United States, where he obtained his Ph.

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Leibler was born in Poland, received his Ph. More recently, he has worked mainly in the U. Today, he is the Gladys T. Leibler's work spans the fields of physics, biochemistry, and molecular biology, but he is best known for his work on biochemical and genetic networkand on the implications of the robustness and self-organizing properties of such networks for complex systems more generally. For this reason, his name is often mentioned in connection with the Nobel Prize in Chemistry, though he could just was well qualify for the prizes in physics and in physiology or medicine.

In fact, Leibler's work on biochemical networks has been a prime contributor to the breaking down of traditional departmental boundaries and the organization of multidisciplinary teams like his own Laboratory of Living Matter, in the effort to understand how living systems work at a more fundamental, physical level.

Leibler is also a pioneer of synthetic biology, which is the attempt to build synthetic networks to implement particular functions in model systems such as E. In , working together with Michael B.


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Elowitz, Leibler and his team produced a ground-breaking result in this new field by building a negative-feedback gene regulation system and monitoring its operation using fluorescent dye proteins. Schaefer was born in Grand Rapids, MI. He has also received numerous visiting, emeritus, and other academic appointments. Schaefer's work has centered on applying computational methods to problems in molecular quantum mechanics quantum chemistry , a field he pioneered. The wide and varied body of work undertaken by his research group has employed highly accurate ab initio quantum-chemical computational techniques to throw light on the geometries, properties, and reactions of diverse chemical systems.

Many of the group's papers have accurately predicted experimental results, and not a few have forced reinterpretations of the findings of other well-known investigators, such as, for example, the geometry of triplet methylene. Tour was born in New York City. Since , he has been the T. In , he co-founded NanoComposites, Inc. He has also written on the problem of terrorists' obtaining chemical weapons and has done consulting work for the Commerce Department. The Tour group is best known for its work on molecular electronics and switching molecules.

The numerous applications deriving from this work include carbon nanovectors for medical applications, green carbon research for environmentally friendly oil and gas extraction, graphene electronics and photovoltaics, chemical self-assembly, and synthesis of single-molecule nanomachines. Among the latter, Tour is most famous for creating the "nanocar," an H-shaped alkyne chassis with fullerene groups acting as wheels at the four corners.

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Powered by thermal energy, the nanocar is capable of rolling about freely on a metallic surface. Whitesides was born Louisville, KY. Since , he has been the Woodford L.


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Flowers University Professor there. Whitesides's laboratory has focused on the use of nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy in organic chemistry. His team has been highly productive in addressing a very wide swathe of research problems in materials science, biophysics, surface physics and cell-surface biochemistry, microfluids, emergence and complexity, molecular self-assembly, nanotechnology, the origin of life, and other fields.

The best-known technological applications of his work have been in the areas of soft nanolithography, the chemical self-assembly of nanostructures, and the design of medical diagnostic "labs" on a chip.

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Baulcombe was born in Solihull, near Birmingham, in England. After post-doctoral work in Canada and the U. He was knighted in Baulcombe's field of research has been the role of viruses, RNA, and other factors in gene regulation, disease resistance, and gene silencing.

In particular, his work on small interfering RNA siRNA was instrumental in opening up the entirely new, now-burgeoning field of study known as "epigenetics. Chambon was born in Mulhouse, in southern Alsace. Chambon is one of the first molecular biologists who used recombinant DNA technology, beginning in the s, to investigate the structure of the eukaryotic genome and the ways in which gene regulation occurs in eukaryotes.

His work elucidated the fundamental mechanisms of transcription in animal cells. He is also responsible for the discovery of the nuclear receptor superfamily. Finally, with Ronald M. Evans and others, Chambon discovered the nuclear hormone receptor for retinoic acid, a molecule which plays a crucial role in embryonic development and metabolism. This breakthrough revolutionized the fields of endocrinology and physiology, and opened up many new strategies for developing new drugs. Evans was born in Los Angeles. He did postdoctoral work at Rockefeller University with James Darnell.

Evans's research has focused on nuclear hormone signalling and metabolism. He is responsible for isolating the gene involved in the production of growth hormone, as well as its steroid and thyroid hormonal regulators and their receptor proteins. In all, he has discovered some 50 receptors that are part of this nuclear receptor superfamily.

With Pierre Chambon and others, Evans discovered the important nuclear hormone receptor for retinoic acid see above.