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Bodhidharma was a Buddhist monk who lived during the 5th or 6th century. He is traditionally At that time there was a monk of the Western Region named Bodhidharma, Sòngyún (宋雲)—an official of one of the later Wei kingdoms—encountered It is among the first and most important texts for East Asian Yogācāra.
Table of contents
Foreign ideas and religions spread incredibly quickly via the trade routes across the whole of Eurasia and much of Africa. The acceleration of information exchange was unprecedented. Buddhism became established in Central Asia well before the turn of the millennium and in China during the 1 st century CE.
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This rapid spread of religions was to continue in later centuries with Manichaeism, Nestorian Christianity and Islam. He also included translations of a wide range of other Chinese texts relating to Da Qin the Roman Empire and the Chinese text of each is included, making it an essential reference, even today. These are, to my knowledge, the only translations of significant portions of the text into European languages to date. What a wonderful treasure chest of information I discovered there! It was soon clear to me, however, that the translations and notes were badly in need of expansion and updating, and, as there had never been a complete translation of the whole texts into English, I decided to began teaching myself Chinese so I could study and translate the original Chinese texts.
I had not realised when I first started in what an immense and lengthy, but rewarding, task the translating and annotating the Weilue would be. It was an audacious undertaking, as my knowledge of Chinese was and still is very limited. It would have been impossible without the help of many experts and friends and any merits this new translation might have are due largely to their kind and generous suggestions and advice.
I include here some of his more important observations and notes:. Chavannes always makes use of the edition of the twenty-four historians published by the library of Tushujicheng in Shanghai from This edition has the advantage of being printed clearly in a convenient format and is relatively inexpensive. It accurately reproduces the Imperial edition published in the 18 th century by order of Qianlong and which is authoritative in China today.
It is just that this edition in moving characters 1 , generally correct for the Shiji or the Histories of the Han , and which is at the same time the first and the only true reflection of the dynastic histories, is quite careless from the Sanguozhi onwards.
Additionally, Mr. Chavannes has had at his disposal the edition of the Sanguozhi known as the Baorentang p. The edition of that I quote here is, however, far from being satisfactory itself. In the section on Da Qin that Mr. Chavannes has not translated, it presents a printing fault which has misled Mr.
Hirth and which I have already had the occasion to note B. Chavannes p.
All these examples show that one cannot safely translate using a single contemporary edition of the dynastic histories. The first palace edition alone deserves complete trust for the text adopted under Qianlong, and yet modern criticism can only see there the version which was followed by the scholars of the 18 th century, but not a sufficiently reliable text that comparison with the editions of the Sung, Yuan, or the Ming would be without profit 3. All these editions, from whatever period, have this in common, that they have not modified the text even if it was clearly in error.
Disregarding the copying or printing faults that they inevitably present in greater or lesser numbers, the differences between the editions to which Chinese or European science are able to refer to always provide various readings furnished by previous printed or manuscript examples, and the various editors have not chosen between them in the same manner. This prudence, this respect for the text, is one of the principal merits of Chinese scholarship and it is, in part, due to this that the dynastic histories have retained such great authority.
But, as a result, commentaries are necessary to establish, whether by comparison between the dynastic histories or referring to other works of Chinese literature, if a certain passage is certainly or probably in error, and in which manner it ought to be corrected. It is principally under the present dynasty, which is the great period of Chinese exegesis, that this research has been undertaken.
Page , note 1. I have several times, and with others with me, spoken of the lithographic or photolithographic edition of the twenty-four historians. This is the edition used here by Mr. Chavannes ; it was published in and in the following years in a small format, and, in fact, has been carried out with the use of mobile metallic characters.
The same applies to the corresponding edition of the Tushujicheng. There is the catalogue of what was published there cf. Page , note 2. One sees that it is a matter of the edition. The unity of the ancient forms of these dual characters has survived until now in spirit. Page , note 3. We have not so much as mentioned ancient Chinese manuscripts. Meanwhile, exception should be made for those that have been rediscovered in Japan over the last few years. Now, on this chapter alone, there are about a hundred characters different from the usual text.
Translated and adapted from Pelliot , pp. This is generally regarded as an authoritative an accurate rendition, with the added advantage of including punctuations. Occasional small differences with other editions have been dealt with in the Notes. Prior to this books were usually written on bamboo slips or on silk. It is unclear whether Yu Huan had access to paper or not. The reader should be aware that this chapter has only survived because it was included as an extensive note to the Sanguozhi.
Often it is possible to tell whether a bamboo slip has been lost because they usually only had a limited number of characters on them; a page of paper could contain a larger text. Unfortunately, here one cannot tell for certain, but it does seem possible that one or more bamboo slips were lost before the chapter was recorded in the Sanguozhi — particularly near the end of Section In particular, the identification of some of the place-names and products mentioned in the text are still unresolved; and continue to be vigorously debated.
About the Dating and Background of the Text. Chavannes, in his introduction, convincingly dates the composition of the text:. The narrative of these events comes to a halt during the reign of Emperor Ming The evidence of Liu Zhiji, dating from a time when the Weilue had not yet disappeared, cannot be put in doubt. Pelliot adds the following information about the date and status of the text in his review:.
Chavannes is the first to base this date on a text definitely from the 8th century. Chavannes believes that it is unique and decisive. In fact, it is truly the only text that the Chinese bibliographers quote regarding Yu Huan that is not taken from the canonical histories. However, the fact of not coming from the official compilations, regarding material on Chinese history, does not give more authority to a work.
Henceforth we will be able to call upon a text more than a hundred years older, and more reliable. Translated and adapted from Pelliot , p. This was, without doubt, a sort of table of the metropolitan and provincial functionaries. Here again it is said that Yu Huan lived under the Wei. As the Nanji shu deals with the years , and was compiled in the first half of the 6th century, we have in this passage new evidence, years previous to the Shui shu, and years before the Shih tong , which allows us to fix the period in which the Weilue was written in the second third of the 3rd century.
The Westing Game
Pelliot notes:. Wylie Notes on Chinese Literature , p. In spite of all this attention, many place-names in the text remain unidentified or the identification is not convincing , and some sections of the routes outlined in the text have remained unclear. This is especially true of the sections relating to the Roman Empire, and the sea routes between China and Egypt, where the data available is very sparse. Nor are we certain of the local pronunciations in the second and third centuries CE. The Han transcriptions of the sounds of local place-names often amount to little more than rough approximations.
Sometimes syllables were dropped, sometimes the pronunciations were drastically altered, particularly as certain foreign phonemes did not exist in Chinese. It has been either paraphrased from the Hou Hanshu itself, or taken from the same sources. On the other hand, much of the information on Parthia and the Roman Empire is additional to that included in the Hou Hanshu.
He returned to China in CE. Much of this information is duplicated in the Weilue. These include this fascinating passage:.
The Westing Game by Ellen Raskin
In the ninth Yanxi year [ CE ], during the reign of Emperor Huan, the king of Da Qin the Roman Empire , Andun Marcus Aurelius Antoninus , sent envoys from beyond the frontiers through Rinan Commandery on the central Vietnamese coast , to offer elephant tusks, rhinoceros horn, and turtle shell. This was the very first time there was [direct] communication [between the two countries]. See TWR Section Who supplied this information is not clear, although the routes described strongly suggest that they were mainly gathered from Arab, possibly Nabataean, traders.
However, the many references to Anxi Parthia indicate that the information in the Weilue on the Roman Empire and Parthia must date from before the collapse of the Parthians and the founding of the Sasanian Empire in CE. This work can now be confidently dated to between 40 and 70 CE and, most probably, between CE 40 and See: Fussman ; Robin ; and Casson : pp.
Background Reading. To gain background on the period, and especially of the trade between the Roman Empire and the Orient, the Weilue can be read alongside the following texts:.
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See the very readable translation in: Watson, Burton, , II: I hope to make an English translation of these biographies available soon. See the excellent translation from H. Also still useful is William H. Wilfred H. New York, Longmans, Green, and Co. Second Edition.
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For a full translation see: Natural History. Pliny the Elder 77 CE. Translation by W.