Cognition and learning: How do students think and learn? 3. Limits of stage theories. Students' cognitive development and learning are not limited by general stages of . As a result, they will be capable of achieving larger distal goals. relationships with teachers for essential supports for learning based on this principle.
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- Gaining A Basic Understanding of the Subject
Regarding professional approach, a manager has to continuously strive for discovering new ideas, relationships and concepts and act in a dynamic and innovative manner to cope with the changing environment. Even so, managers are not respected as other professionals like doctors, advocates and chartered accountants.
Family management implies management and control of business operations by a group of members belonging to a particular family, regardless of their knowledge about management. Thus the decisions and policies are largely influenced by family interest.
Disputes and disagreements relating to family matters also tend to have a direct bearing on the functioning of the business organization. But in a professionally-managed enterprise, ownership is separated from management and control. Authority to manage and control business operations is delegated to professionally-qualified managers. In some of which, family inheritance has been continuing for centuries.
The phenomenal progress of Ford Motors, IBM, etc, bears testimony to their quality of leadership and management. In the words of K. Birla, "if people like Sir Jamshedji Tata or Rai Bahadur Gujarmal Modi were to start their business career again, I would any day put my rupee on them than on the best of the professionals. There has been a controversy regarding the interpretation of these two terms.
There are different views in this regard:. According to first view William Newman, Peter Drucker, etc , there is no basic difference between the two terms, and they are interchangeable. If there is any difference, it may perhaps be in their usage in practice. The term administration is used for non-business activities, and management is used for business activities.
According to second view Kimball, Brech, other British writers, etc , management is a more comprehensive term which includes administration. Management involves "thinking" and administration involves "doing". Management is responsible for planning and organizing, and administration is responsible for directing and controlling. Whereas management refers to a high level of managerial activities such as goal-setting, policy formulation and strategy making, administration refers to an operative part concerned with lower level management activities such as execution of policies.
According to third view Sheldon, Speriegal, Milward, etc , administration is a more comprehensive term which includes management. Administration involves "thinking" and management involves "doing". Administration is a top level function which concentrates on determination of plans, policies and objectives, whereas management is a lower level function which deals with the execution and direction of policies and operations. It doesn't mean that we need two separate sets of personnel, but each manager performs both the managerial as well as administrative functions.
At top level more time is spent in administrative activity and as one moves down, more time is spent in management activity. Difference between Administration and Management. Management is the act or function of putting into practice the policies and plans decided upon by the administration.
Administration is a determinative function, while management is an executive function. Administration makes the important decisions of an enterprise in its entirety, whereas management makes the decisions within the confines of the framework, which is set up by the administration.
Administrators are mainly found in large and multi-layered enterprises such as governments, military, religious and educational organizations or corporations.
Aims and Objectives for Teaching and Learning
Management, on the other hand, is used by mid-size to small enterprises and may take administrative functions or even be labeled as administration but granted mostly a management function. For example the administration of a condominium is mostly a managerial body that is needs to convey an assembly to reach most decisions. It consists of board of directors, chief executive or managing director.
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The top management is the ultimate source of authority and it manages goals and policies for an enterprise. It devotes more time on planning and coordinating functions. While this may be more visible in large organisations there is not normally such a sharp stratification in smaller organisations where the same person may perform strategic, tactical and operational roles.
The branch managers and departmental managers constitute middle level. They are responsible to the top management for the functioning of their department. They devote more time to organizational and directional functions. In small organization, there is only one layer of middle level of management but in big enterprises, there may be senior and junior middle level management. Their role can be emphasized as -. It consists of supervisors, foreman, section officers, superintendent etc. In other words, they are concerned with direction and controlling function of management. Their activities include -.
It bears the existing and newly developed theories and methods of the relevant social sciences upon the study of human behavior ranging from personality dynamics of individuals to the relations of culture. Features As management is the process of getting things done by people, managers should understand human behaviour. Emphasis is put on increasing productivity through motivation and good human relations. Motivation, leadership, communication, participative management and group dynamics are the central core of this approach.
Use a manual to calculate an employee's vacation time.
Guidance on Aims and Objectives for Teaching and Learning
Apply laws of statistics to evaluate the reliability of a written test. Separates material or concepts into component parts so that its organizational structure may be understood. Distinguishes between facts and inferences. Troubleshoot a piece of equipment by using logical deduction. Recognize logical fallacies in reasoning. Gathers information from a department and selects the required tasks for training. Fishbowls , debating, questioning what happened, run a test.
Select the most effective solution. Hire the most qualified candidate. Explain and justify a new budget. Builds a structure or pattern from diverse elements.
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Put parts together to form a whole, with emphasis on creating a new meaning or structure. Write a company operations or process manual. Design a machine to perform a specific task. Integrates training from several sources to solve a problem.
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Revises and process to improve the outcome. Bloom's Revised Taxonomy not only improved the usability of it by using action words, but added a cognitive and knowledge matrix. While Bloom's original cognitive taxonomy did mention three levels of knowledge or products that could be processed, they were not discussed very much and remained one-dimensional:. In Krathwohl and Anderson's revised version, the authors combine the cognitive processes with the above three levels of knowledge to form a matrix.
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In addition, they added another level of knowledge - metacognition:. When the cognitive and knowledge dimensions are arranged in a matrix, as shown below, it makes a nice performance aid for creating performance objectives:. However, others have identified five contents or artifacts Clark, Chopeta, ; Clark, Mayer, A Taxonomy for Learning, Teaching, and Assessing: A revision of Bloom's Taxonomy of Educational Objectives.
Taxonomy of Educational Objectives, Handbook I: David McKay Co Inc. Find out more about me copyright, APA formatting, etc. Bloom's Taxonomy of Learning Domains Bloom's Taxonomy was created in under the leadership of educational psychologist Dr Benjamin Bloom in order to promote higher forms of thinking in education, such as analyzing and evaluating concepts, processes, procedures, and principles , rather than just remembering facts rote learning.
The Three Domains of Learning The committee identified three domains of educational activities or learning Bloom, et al. Cognitive Domain The cognitive domain involves knowledge and the development of intellectual skills Bloom, There are six major categories of cognitive an processes, starting from the simplest to the most complex see the table below for an in-depth coverage of each category: Knowledge Comprehension Application Analysis Synthesis Evaluation The categories can be thought of as degrees of difficulties.
Bloom's Revised Taxonomy Lorin Anderson, a former student of Bloom, and David Krathwohl revisited the cognitive domain in the mid-nineties and made some changes, with perhaps the three most prominent ones being Anderson, Krathwohl, Airasian, Cruikshank, Mayer, Pintrich, Raths, Wittrock, The new version of Bloom's Taxonomy, with examples and keywords is shown below, while the old version may be found here Table of the Revised Cognitive Domain Category Examples, key words verbs , and technologies for learning activities Remembering: Recall or retrieve previous learned information.
Fishbowls , debating, questioning what happened, run a test Evaluating: Make judgments about the value of ideas or materials. While Bloom's original cognitive taxonomy did mention three levels of knowledge or products that could be processed, they were not discussed very much and remained one-dimensional: Procedural - How to do something, methods of inquiry, and criteria for using skills, algorithms, techniques, and methods.
In addition, they added another level of knowledge - metacognition: When the cognitive and knowledge dimensions are arranged in a matrix, as shown below, it makes a nice performance aid for creating performance objectives: Facts - Specific and unique data or instance.
Concepts - A class of items, words, or ideas that are known by a common name, includes multiple specific examples, shares common features.