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Editorial Reviews. About the Author. Louisa Bacio is the author of six erotic novels, including the paranormal series The Vampire, The Witch & The Werewolf,.
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Rodrigue, Kristen M. Knowledge about aging of perceptual-motor skills is based almost exclusively on cross-sectional studies. We examined age-related changes in the retention of mirror-tracing skills in healthy adults who practiced for 3 separate days at baseline and retrained 5 years later at follow-up. Overall, the speed and accuracy of an acquired skill were partially retained after a 5-year interim, although the same asymptote was reached. Analyses with individual learning curves indicated that the effects of age on mirror-tracing speed were greater at longitudinal follow-up than at baseline, with older adults requiring more training to reach asymptote.
Thus, although the long-term retention of acquired skills declines with age, older adults still retain the ability to learn the skill. Moreover, those who maintained a processing speed comparable with that of the younger participants evidenced no age-related performance decrements on the mirror-drawing task. The ABILITY to perform purposeful movements efficiently and precisely is an essential part of successful functioning in everyday activities. Although younger adults tend to perform better than their older peers on many perceptual-motor tasks, the effects of aging on the rate of skill acquisition remain unclear.
Age-related discrepancies in the shapes of acquisition curves vary across studies. In many samples, increasing divergence with practice is evident, and older adults do not improve across trials as much as their younger counterparts do Gutman, ; Raz et al. However, closing of the age gap after practice has been reported as well Durkin et al. Although the differences across studies may be explained in part by variations in research design e.
For example, in essentially the same sample, we found an age-diverging pattern on the pursuit rotor task Raz et al.
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Although all tasks under consideration fall under the rubric of perceptual-motor or procedural skills, the variability among them is significant. Some tasks e. Therefore, task-specific differences in strategy and planning demands point to a possible role of cognitive resources in various phases of skill acquisition Anderson, Thus far, the research on the cognitive underpinnings of age-related differences in procedural skills focused on cognitive slowing, a continuous lifelong process affecting multiple functional domains Birren, ; Fozard et al.
Processing speed often explains a significant amount of age-related variance across a variety of cognitive domains Salthouse, , although a single-mechanism model is unlikely to fully account for age effects in skill retention e.
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Therefore, reduced processing speed may explain some of the observed age-related differences in performance. Moreover, its contribution may be especially strong during the largely executive, early stages of skill acquisition Anderson, Given that healthy older adults can successfully acquire new skills age differences notwithstanding and improve their performance through practice on a variety of perceptual-motor tasks, a key question is whether older adults can retain newly acquired perceptual-motor skills, despite the known deleterious effects of aging on structural and functional brain integrity Cabeza, ; Grady, ; Raz et al.
Previous longitudinal studies of retention of skilled search have illustrated that both younger and older adults can retain task-specific skilled memory search Fisk et al.
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One study Cooke, Durso, Schvaneveldt, reported retention of skilled search over 9 years in 3 participants of various ages. It remains unclear, however, whether the age-related differences in longitudinal change documented in specific skills such as visual memory search generalize to other procedural domains of learning. To date, knowledge about aging and perceptual-motor skills in particular has been based exclusively on cross-sectional differences, and longitudinal cognitive aging studies have focused primarily on the declarative memory system, with few studies on procedural learning.
Consequently, the effect of age-related change on perceptual-motor skill retention is unknown. Thus, our primary objective in the present study was to examine the effects of age on longitudinal retention of a previously learned perceptual motor skill, mirror tracing, in a sample of healthy adults covering a wide age range.
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We also sought to determine if aging has differential effects on changes in speed and accuracy of performance. Lastly, we inquired whether differences in perceptual processing speed predict perceptual-motor skill performance at follow-up. We collected the data for this study in a 5-year longitudinal investigation of age-related changes in brain and cognition conducted in a major metropolitan area in the United States. Among the previous participants, 77 had complete cognitive and MRI data and were eligible for follow-up testing.
All participants signed a consent form approved by the University Committee for Protection of Human Subjects in Research and were screened by means of a mail-in health questionnaire, supplemented by telephone and personal interviews. We applied the same screening criteria used to determine eligibility for the original cross-sectional study to the follow-up sample.
We excluded persons who reported history of cardiovascular, neurological, or psychiatric conditions, head trauma with loss of consciousness for more than 5 min, thyroid problems, diabetes, treatment for drug and alcohol problems, or a habit of taking three or more alcoholic drinks per day from the study. None of the participants used antiseizure medication, anxiolytics, or antidepressants and did not report arthritis. Of the 32 participants who completed the follow-up, we excluded 10 from data analyses because they failed to meet the health-screening criteria at follow-up.
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Thus, we analyzed complete cognitive data from 22 participants 13 women and 9 men. The average education was Although we used an MMSE score of 26 as a cutoff to exclude participants with dementia, most MMSE scores at the time of second testing were higher than the cutoff Participants returned for follow-up testing an average of 5. The participants who returned for follow-up did not differ from the nonreturning cross-sectional participants in age We included 4 participants three women with medically controlled hypertension in the longitudinal sample 2 diagnosed at baseline and 2 more diagnosed by the time of follow-up.
The hypertensive participants did not differ significantly in age from the remainder of the sample mean age at baseline They were instructed to trace a flat six-pointed star with a pencil-like metallic stylus, while only a mirror-inverted image of the star was visible. Participants were instructed to keep their eyes on the mirror at all times and to make as few errors as possible.
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We defined an error as an instance in which the stylus moved outside the pattern boundary, and the apparatus emitted a clicking sound every time an error was made. Number of errors crossing target boundary and total time spent inside the target area to the nearest. Participants were instructed to start at the red dot located at the top right corner of the star and trace clockwise in the direction of the arrow. We tested all participants individually on three consecutive days, and they performed five blocks of five trials each, with a s intertrial interval.
Participants completed Block 1 on Day 1, Blocks 2 and 3 on Day 2 with an approximately min break between blocks, and Blocks 4 and 5 on Day 3 with an approximately min break between blocks. At 5-year follow-up, we used the same apparatus and testing location, and participants followed identical instructions and procedures.
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Throughout the duration of the test 90 s , we showed participants a template with nine digit—symbol pairings. Participants were then given a series of digits and were asked to pair each digit with its correct symbol according to the template, as quickly as possible. We examined the longitudinal effects of age and sex on mirror-tracing performance in a mixed general linear model. In the model, the wave of measurement baseline vs.
We analyzed the two indices of performance, error rate errors in tracing and speed time to complete trial , separately. We dropped all nonsignificant interactions from the final models, and we adjusted the probabilities for interactions with the repeated measure factors by the Huynh—Feldt epsilon coefficient to correct for violation of sphericity assumption. Unadjusted means for speed at baseline and 5-year follow-up are displayed in Table 1. A comparison of regression parameters across the 3 days of training indicated a stronger relationship between speed of tracing and age during the earlier stages of skill acquisition at both baseline and follow-up.
We conducted a repeated measures linear model analysis of the individual learning curve parameters, which were log-transformed to avoid the undue influence of outliers in a small sample. In that analysis, parameter type intercept, asymptote, or time constant and wave of measurement baseline vs. We repeated the analysis after removing 3 participants for whom the exponential model did not fit the data well. This analysis showed an essentially unaltered pattern of results, although we observed some reduction in significance.
To investigate the role of processing speed in mirror-tracing performance, we used a mixed general linear model framework with Day 1 to 3 tracing times at follow-up as the dependent variable and age and WAIS-R digit symbol DS, a speed of processing measure at follow-up as continuous predictors. We recentered the DS scores and age at their sample means.
There were no significant within-subject interactions with DS. Older adults performed less accurately than younger adults across both waves of measurement, days of testing, and both sexes. A significant effect of the wave of testing baseline vs. Error rates by trial are illustrated in Figure 2.
As with tracing speed, we observed substantial individual differences in retention of accuracy. To test for measurement dependency between speed and error rate, we examined correlations among outcome variables i. To investigate the possible role of processing speed in mirror-tracing error rates, we analyzed the same model for the mirror-tracing error scores as a dependent variable, with age, DS, and their interaction terms as independent predictors.
To the best of our knowledge, this is the first longitudinal study of long-term retention of a novel perceptual-motor skill in healthy adults.
The results indicated that an acquired perceptual-motor skill can be retained, to some degree, after a 5-year hiatus by healthy adults covering a wide age range. This finding is in accord with previous observations concerning other, nonperceptual-motor skills e. However, none of the participants retained their asymptotic level of performance achieved by the end of baseline training.
Although most participants began follow-up practice at better-than-novice levels, the advantage of previous training was apparent only during the initial stage of retraining. By the end of retraining, the same asymptotes in both speed and accuracy of performance were reached as the ones that were established at the end of baseline training.
Within each measurement occasion, the participants across the age span improved their speed and accuracy of performance with practice, in accord with previous cross-sectional literature on a variety of tasks, such as rotor pursuit Durkin et al. However, we did observe differential effects of aging on speed and accuracy of performance.
Whereas participants' tracing speed across days of training was selectively dependent on age, we found no effect of age on change in error rates across practice within sessions. Despite more favorable starting levels at follow-up, participants failed to exceed their previous levels of performance, confirming that the skill reached asymptotic levels during baseline training. An analysis of individual learning curves indicated that, for novices evaluated at baseline, the age-related differences were apparent only in the starting level of performance, with younger participants starting at faster levels than their older peers.
In contrast, at follow-up, we observed age effects not only in initial starting level but also in the rate of learning and asymptotic level of performance as well. Thus, in this sample, the effects of aging were revealed and magnified by additional training. The pronounced age effects on asymptote and slope at follow-up compared with baseline may suggest age differences in the less automatized aspects of the mirror-drawing task specifically. If, indeed, the automatized component of the skill is unaffected by aging, then perhaps this age deficiency reflects older adults' difficulty in the processing of more effortful components of the mirror-drawing task, such as inhibiting the prepotent response of the motor sequence to the visually reversed stimulus.
Those functions rely on the age-sensitive brain regions e. It is unclear what accounts for age differences in the parameters of skill acquisition.