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Table of contents
Azimuth Of Sunrise - Robert L. In Carnegie - Steven R. An Analemmatic Sundial - Robert L. Location Lost - Rolf Wieland et al. Gnomonic Pillar Sundial - Robert L. Azimuth - Bill Gottesman Quiz: Misaligned Analemmatic - M. Azimuth - Bill Gottesman Sightings.
The Analemma - Robert Kellogg Quiz: Ozanam's Problems et al. Ozanam's Construction - Rolf Wieland Bonus: Gnomonics and Solar Radiation - Renis Ridolfo. Design, Construction and Use - John Hayes. Cartoon - David Flick Addendum: Rise And Decline - Frans W. A Reference Spreadsheet, etc. Part 2 of 2 - Herbert O. Part 1 of 2 - Herbert O.
Ramp The Oldest Analemmatic Sundial? Digital Bonus - Robert L. Meyrowitz Sundial Catalog, et al. Dunn Back to Basics: Vinck Back To Basics: Woodbury Letters, Notes, Email, Internet Letters, Notes, Email, Internet Serving A Useful Function? Len Berggren Quiz Answer: Finding Longitude - Rolf Wieland Sightings Construct The Dial - Fer J. Sundial Align - Bill Gottesman Sightings Woodbury Back To Basics: Gianni's Pole - Gianni Ferrari Quiz: Shadows, EarthWatch et al. Student Dials - Mac Oglesby Sightings: Len Berggren Digital Bonus: Nicole's Dollar - Fred Sawyer Quiz: A Collimating Altitude Dial - Rev.
An Sundial Advertisement. Louis - Donald L. Hill A Gnomonic Cane - M. Jacques' Layout - Fred Sawyer Quiz: At Noon - Steven R.
Compendium - Mid Wales Geology Club (Page 2)
Volume 6 Number 2, June Sundials - A. In The Garden - Steven R. Tipped here on Ordovician sandstone is a huge pile of rusty weathering Cwmere shales with abundant Nomalograptus persculptus, the characteristic graptolite of the lower Cwmere, together with numerous small orthocones. Next call was the nearby and more recent rock quarry at SN , a highly disturbed sandstone channel displaying great contortions of the bedding, which also incorporate huge mudstone diapirs resulting from upward squirting of still soft mudstone as large bodies of sand flowed onto them.
This melange is thought to result from collapses of the south-eastern levee banking of the submarine channel. Finally, in a small quarry at SN we saw the contact between the uppermost Brynglas sandstones and the lowest Cwmere mudstones, and discussed the reasons for the oxic condition of the former and the anoxic condition of the latter. Then we lunched in the sunshine. There were at least a dozen phases of mineralisation as superheated mineral rich fluids were released upwards from their deep reservoirs by movement on faults. It began work in and continued sporadically until , producing a total around tonnes of lead ore and some tonnes of copper ore.
But it is best known for the small quantities of a silver ore, tetrahedrite, found in the lead ores, allowing silver to be reclaimed during smelting. We found on the spoil tips: Then John told us that he has found around forty minerals in total on these very tips over many visits! Our visit to Middletown Quarry last Sunday was most enjoyable, perfect weather and unusual rocks. It is within the interesting Breidden inlier, north west of Welshpool which comprises an heterogeneous mix of Ordovician rocks all within a small area.
The bedding reflects the different volcanic events and shows variation in colour and in the grading of the clasts within it. The green colour is thought to be due to the replacement of minerals within pumice by chloritic minerals. The image is of explosive eruptions of an island volcano producing ash which is carried down into deeper water by turbiditic flows. Although we could see the Graptolitic Shale Member, which is a dark "Black Shale", we could not approach it and had to content ourselves with examining different heaps around the quarry. Some was heavily pyritised, like the black colour, showing it originated in anoxic conditions.
Graptolites were hard to come by, however. One strange rock in the main quarry raised questions regarding its derivation. It as a conlomerate in which the clasts were "cobbles" of bentonite. Presumably derived from a soft sediment mass flow of partially lithified sediment in which ash had already been degraded. At the top of the quarry and on the hilltop above, an andesitic conglomerate with andesitic cobbles overlies the Middletown Formation.
This is in the Builthy Formation and may indicate that the volcanoes were becoming more intermediate in nature. In the afternoon, after discussing the surrounding geology from the vantagepoint of the hilltop, we explored more of a section across the Breidden inlier by walking across the valley towards Rodney's Column, noting the change of slope and the dolerite exposures as we came to the intrusion exploited by the nearby Criggion Quarry. We were near the top of the Gaer Fawr Fm Ordovician, Caradoc , a shallowing-up sandstone with abundant fossils, as seen in the small quarry at the nature reserve car park.
This hard sandstone forms the hill. Above this in the steeply dipping sequence is the softer Dolhir Fm Ashgill , which has now eroded to a valley. The Ordovician is then topped by the Nod Glas, a thin horizon of soft black shale, which we saw in the stream banks at the valley bottom. Above this in the sequence is the very hard Powis Castle Conglomerate, a beach deposit, now forming a ridge, along which we walked, looking across the eroded valley, at Gaer Fawr Hill. All these features were beautifully evident on a lovely dry day, with additional features to be seen in the stream bed bentonites, evidence of faulting, and limestone.
The day finished with a walk to the top of the iron age hill fort, through woods of stunning bluebell display. In some ways Gilfach geology is simple as all the exposed bedrock is from just one formation, the Rhayader Mudstones Formation. In the reserve, exposures are generally weathered and covered in lichen; but there is a comparatively fresh exposure just outside the entrance on the A road cutting, where we could examine it at close quarters. Here it was seen to be an attractive green-grey fine grained rock in which individual grains are too small to be visible to the naked eye, hence it is classified by geologists as a "mudrock".
It was laid down some million years ago in quite deep water and is part of the Llandovery Series of the Silurian System. It is less developed than in slates, so these mudrocks would be termed shales. Picking out the signature of the original bedding was more difficult. It shows as more subtle changes in colour and texture which can be picked out dipping much nearer the horizontal.
On some cleavage faces the bedding shows as a ripple effect when the direction of cleavage differs slightly as it meets different beds. The bedding here is quite thin, being from a few cm to tens of cm. It could have been triggered by a storm or similar disturbance and is termed a turbidite. Each turbidite could have been followed by a quiet period in which very thin laminae may have been deposited from the undisturbed waters above.
These are termed hemipelagites and may be dark grey, pyritic and carbonaceous if deposited in anoxic conditions, with no life surviving; or lighter grey and mottled with burrows if animals lived there. One of the notable features of this rock is the presence of concretions or nodules.
These commonly form in mudrocks after deposition and are discrete local patches cemented differently from what surrounds them. They can be cemented by a variety of minerals; but in this rock they are generally either calcareous or phosphatic. In the road cutting we found one which was about mm long and egg shaped. It fizzed when we touched it with acid, so was calcareous cemented by calcite and it showed a cone-in-cone structure.
Cone-in-cone structures are poorly understood. They comprise nested cones of fibrous calcite and probably take a long time to form, requiring that a high proportion of saturated pore water remains within the sediment for hundreds of thousands of years. This can occur if a bed is overpressured by being trapped between impermeable layers. As rock is much denser than water, under these conditions pressure can be greater than that due to a simple water column.
There were also many smaller phosphatic nodules disposed along the bedding. These are blacker than the surrounding rock, but get paler as they weather. Walking back into the reserve and up to the crags on the hillside facing the parking, we saw similar directional features. The cleavage was again steeply dipping in the same north westerly direction and this was to turn out to be true all over the reserve to within a few degrees.
The bedding, however, told a different story. We could see it was dipping in different directions as we looked round. In some places it was folded into synclines downward and anticlines upward. Displacements in the bedding occurred where small faults existed. Some beds had been partially eroded away where lines of concretions had been preferentially eroded out. The structure of these rocks tells of a complicated story going back some million years to a time when Wales was attached to the north of small continent which geologists call Avalonia.
This was somewhere south of the equator, drifting slowly north towards a larger continent, Laurentia, later to become North America. It was starting to feel a soft collision with Laurentia. This was complicated by it not being a straight head-to-head collision, but at an angle, with some transverse movement. Further complication was introduced by the probable impact of another continental fragment, Baltica, from the east. The three way collision did not produce simple concertina folds, but something more like a crumpled sheet of paper, which is what we see in the variously dipping bedding planes.
Cleavage developed much later about million years ago in the Devonian period when the collision pressure peaked just as today in the Himalayas, where the Indian sub-continent is in collision with Asia. What went on more recently during the Ice Age? The Wye valley going north is wide and there are ice eroded cwms exiting into it, so it was ice filled; but to the south it is much narrower and gorge-like so ice could well have been forced up the Marteg valley. Ice can, of course, flow uphill on occasion!
It may even have been forced north as well, to join the great ice stream exiting along the Severn Valley. No doubt the cavities left by eroded concretions helped start the potholing process.
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Pebbles carried by the river in turbulent eddies when in spate complete the process by abrading, expanding and making the cavities circular. Typically the deposits on the north of the river appear to consist of head while those on the south are grey till, deposited from ice. Perhaps the early river established its gorge to the north of the ice-filled valley, where the sun thawed the ice first. In places we saw a level red layer below the top of the till which had resisted erosion by the river.
This could be a lithified layer, hardened by deposits of iron oxides, forming a pan. This was indeed an enjoyable evening walk along one of the loveliest river valleys in Mid Wales, with a geological story as a bonus. If the opportunity of a repeat performance were to arise, a full day would be well justified, with a visit to the visitor centre for tea and a cake!
Introduction
Thirteen members enjoyed a day of glorious April sunshine at Hendre quarry by permission of Hanson , five miles south of Devil's Bridge, led by Dr David James. Hendre SN is a working quarry, on the eastern flank of the Teifi Anticline, which is the western upfold of the first order fold structure of Central Wales. The main quarry is several hundred metres across, with faces all round, allowing a nearly degree view of folds in the Ystrad Meurig Grits.
Here the Hendre Lobe of sandstones, within the Lower Silurian, Derwenlas Formation mudstones, was sourced via a channel from the Caban canyon, near Rhayader, miles away, on the shelf edge of the Lower Palaeozoic Welsh Basin. We saw turbiditic sandstones of the various stages of the Bouma classification, and some flute casts which proved the palaeocurrent was flowing roughly westwards away from the basin shelf into much deeper water; though the relative absence of mudstone intervals restricts the development of flute casts in these grits.
Grading could be seen in some thick sandstone units. Large blocks on the central quarry floor show beautifully colour-banded cross sections and allow hand lens examination of contacts and grading. Groove casts and prod marks are also visible on these blocks. Often the rock is made up of a continuous sequence of sandstone units, but in places the sandstones are interspersed with dark mudstone in which graptolites have been found.
Folding is well displayed in the quarry, with some folds traceable north-south across the quarry. The benches provide ample opportunity for interpretation and discussion of fold structures, some of which contain confusing parasitic folds and complicated by minor faults. With folds so well displayed, their asymmetry reveals the dominant vergence in a south-east direction, recording the Caledonian Orogeny.
There are good examples of the open, rounded structure of folds in competent, thick sandstones, and tighter chevron folds in thinner sandstones. The all-round views of quarry faces allow cross sections of structures to be seen on one side, and large areas of slightly rippled and curved bedding to be seen on other sides.
Our meeting point was at the first location, Pen y Foel Lane, Llanymynech, where Roy explained the background to the dozen assembled members. In August , England's foremost geologist, Prof. Adam Sedgwick, set out on an expedition to map the "transition beds" of Wales, that had hitherto defied meaningful interpretation. The period was one of dramatic change in the understanding and concepts of geology. Although a biblical interpretation according to Genesis was not seriously regarded by many researchers by this time, the concept of some kind of creation was still strong.
For the previous 50 or so years, the theories of Abraham Gottleb Werner had held sway, that the rocks we see are the result of some sort of fluvial action, perhaps floods or deposits left by a retreating sea. The school of thought was broadly known as "Neptunism". Sedgwick himself had used his presidential address to the Geological Society to recant his belief in this theory that very spring. The succeeding counter argument, perhaps broadly termed Plutonism, was the development of ideas presented by James Hutton in his two lectures to the Royal Society of Edinburgh as far back as Hutton had postulated the rock cycle, with rocks constantly being renewed from igneous rocks breaking through to the surface from great depth.
Hutton could see no sign of a beginning , nor any sign of an end to this process, which finally challenged any concepts of a divine creation, which also postulated a day of judgement. It could be said that Copernicus challenged the concept of the earth being at the centre of the Universe. He was wise to publish his works when more or less on his death bed, as in his day such ideas would have amounted to Heresy. Hutton challenged the idea of a biblical creation, again another heresy in an earlier time. In the summer of , the third prophet who was to eventually challenge man's place at the centre of creation, began his journey here.
It is perhaps how fate works that the grandson of Hutton's friend, Erasmus Darwin, who invoked some ire himself with observations on the immutability of species was asked to accompany Prof. Sedgwick on his quest. A few yards up the lane, they stopped and no doubt could see in the road cutting, steeply dipping shaley rocks on which Darwin could try out his newly acquired clinometer a small plaque marks the spot.
From this spot they could see the nearby limestone escarpment and quarries of Llanymynech Hill. These are almost flat and, if projected, would have been overhead at this point. These radically different dips would indicate an unconformity, as taken by Hutton to show a break in succession and maybe a period of erosion. Sedgwick had business in Llangollen, with Robert Dawson, a surveyor, who was to furnish him with notes on the limestone of the Vale of Clwyd.
Sedgwick's mission was very vividly set out for him here. The prominent Mountain Limestone, as it was known is easily identified by its distinctive lithology. It was known elsewhere for the "Herefordshire Beds" to occur beneath the Mountain Limestone, again with a fairly distinctive lithology. Below the Herefordshire Beds, into deepest and darkest Wales, the lithology was a lot less distinctive and geologists at the time were having great difficulty making any sense of it. It was generally referred to as the transition beds.. Sedgwick needed to find a sequence of strata that took him down into the transition beds and from which he could derive fossil sequences to identify them.
Ideally following the maps of the time, he needed to follow a sequence down from the Herefordshire Beds. Sedgwick was using a later version of Greenough's map that had partially corrected the Herefordshire Beds error. The red sandstone in the Vale of Clwyd had identified as New Red Sandstone, a rock common in England and known to be some way above the Mountain Limestone.
However a small sliver of exposed rock was still indicated below the Mountain Limestone and was known as the Old Red Sandstone. At this location the scree covers the base of the limestone. Tantalisingly traces of red soil may be found in places along here, a possible indicator of red sandstone Old or New beneath. As Dinas Bran is significantly higher than the base of the limestone, even if the latter is "extrapolated" towards it, there seems to be something else happening between the two. A small fault is marked on the modern maps which must take the southern side up a little, so any base to the limestone will have been above the hilltop and hence long eroded away.
Darwin's enthusiasm for his new clinometer is evident, he records:. The bank above the abbey consists of Clay slate, which breaks at regular intervals, striking nw by n, d,25 to the ne by n. The entrance to the abbey contains a small well. This is likely to have been the original road and the well may well have been a stop Sedgwick made to water his horse ahead of the long climb up Horseshoe Pass. Darwin busied himself with his notebook and clinometer.
The contrast between this and the more regular slope of the Clay Slatew gives more grandeur to the views. The Greywacke generally covered by gorse, Heath and Fern: Beyond the pass the escarpment changes, with the rounded, heath covered greywackes he noted, seeming to break into the line of limestone hills, and the limestone outcropping into the greywacke area. The line N by E. No arch, but much limestone may have been removed.
About a mile from the Ruthven beds of sandstone". This is Nant y Garth, the faulting brings up the Silurian beds again and forms the end of the Vale of Clwyd. At its end, the road opens into a plain with hills either side, especially a clear line of them to the north. We are into Triassic New Red Sandstone, but outcrops are rare although the soil is red.
Appropriately, we ended our trip at the Castle Hotel, now a Wetherspoons, where Sedgwick and Darwin spent the night. The soil is for some miles about the town and the plain may be considered of that formation. In most places covered up by diluvium. Mile to the west of the town a quarry of worked. The rock is spotted with brown the stone at Cardeston. It is very irregular strat but the rock on which the castle is built nearly horizontal seams.
A further is more clearly visible in a water".
The elusive ORS has finally reappeared and Sedgwick may have thought he had an opening into the lower succession, the notes stress this rock is UNDER the limestone and does have all the appearance of the beds found in Herefordshire. However the boundaries into the lower beds are generally faulted here, in its simplest form the Vale of Clwyd is a rift valley, down faulted during the Upper Carboniferous-Triassic. Sedgwick was not to find a succession into the transition beds anywhere in North Wales, as the unconformity Darwin didn't observe way back in Llanymynech represented a break in deposition and a period of erosion that covered the entire Devonian period and the beginning of the Carboniferous.
Members had enjoyed a fascinating trip and Roy's research and leadership were really appreciated. Most members started to return home at this point, but noted that Ruthin contained a remarkable assortment of building stones, particularly evident in St. They perhaps viewed the pot-pourri of stone used in its construction.
Ruthin seems worth a full day trip in its own right. Perhaps we could follow more footsteps at a future date. The programme also celebrated the bicentenary of the Geological Society. Several other organisations and numerous professional geologists provided further assistance.
It contained several hundred specimens of rocks, minerals and fossils, over fifty large posters, a variety of geological models, and 3-D maps from the British Geological Survey. More than people visited the exhibition. Several field trips were also arranged, and there were activity sessions for nearly primary school children during the exhibition.
Professor Cope observed in that in the Tertiary period post Ma the continental crust beneath the Irish Sea must have been uplifted at least 2 km. This contributed to the present regional south-eastward dip of Wales and England, so the rocks become progressively older north-westwards. Subsequent research suggested that the crust was underplated and thickened by rising magma, causing the uplift, though there is no evidence of surface volcanism, as in the Western Isles of Scotland. A much earlier uplift of the Welsh Basin into mountainous terrain around Ma is well understood, and these ancient rocks are exposed today.
Central Wales then remained land for some Ma. Those early mountains might have been 3 km high but were eroded back to sea-level by the Early Jurassic, million years ago. Jurassic rocks have long been known from South Wales, but were not found further north until they were discovered in the Mochras Borehole near Harlech. In the borehole an extraordinarily thick succession of Lower Jurassic rocks, preserved from erosion by downfaulting, demonstrated that all of Wales probably had some Jurassic cover.
In the early Jurassic, a rising sea-level inundated most of Wales intermittently. In the latest Jurassic and Early Cretaceous Wales was probably land and at least some of the Jurassic sediments would have been eroded at that time, but the sea returned again strongly, depositing more sediment: Because Early Cretaceous erosion may have removed much of the Jurassic cover it is difficult to estimate the total thickness of these Mesozoic deposits, but the Cretaceous chalk alone is likely to have approached 1 km in thickness.
The local seas teemed with life, including the large marine reptiles, plesiosaurs and ichthyosaurs. Some of the large dinosaurs which populated the land areas may also have lived in Central Wales at times of lower sea-level, but any such fossils have long-since been eroded. The idea that the Chalk may have covered Wales was first suggested in by Strahan. He observed that the present rivers of SE Wales did not follow the structures deformed around million years ago during the Variscan orogeny but instead cut across them. He thought they may have originated in the flatter overlying Chalk cover, cutting through to superimpose their drainage pattern on the rocks beneath.
Although a Chalk cover for Wales now seems conclusive, there are no remnant patches of flint gravels as in SW England, probably due to the rapidity of erosion of the Welsh Chalk cover in the early Tertiary. Rifting, and the opening of the northern North Atlantic began in the Cretaceous and continued into the Tertiary with clearly associated post Ma volcanism. A present-day volcanic hot spot exists beneath Iceland; there was extensive volcanism off the west coast of Scotland in the Tertiary, and now it appears there was early Tertiary magmatic underplating beneath the Irish Sea.
Magma, perhaps rising from the Earth's mantle, accumulated beneath the crust and the land domed upwards. Gravity anomaly maps reveal high-density rock beneath the continental crust, and indicate underplating of the crust by 8 km of basalt around the Isle of Man, reducing to some 4 km under North Wales.
The resultant Tertiary doming of land where the Irish Sea is now, led to some 2 km of Jurassic sediments and Cretaceous Chalk being stripped off by erosion. This view is supported by burial-depth studies using fission track analysis, which indicates maximum rock temperature caused by earlier burial , and suggests that the Lower Palaeozoic older rocks now exposed must have had up to 2 km of newer rocks deposited on them, and subsequently eroded. The south-eastward regional dip of England and Wales is around 0. All this indicates earlier presence of around 2 km of Jurassic and Cretaceous cover over Central Wales.
If Wales were covered by the Chalk seas, then all its rivers must have originated in post-Chalk time. Gravity studies suggest the centre of the Irish Sea uplift lay to the south of the Isle of Man, in which case the river systems would have developed radially from that point. Remarkably, many rivers of southern Britain and Ireland do have courses close to this direction. Most of the long rivers in Wales and England also rise in the west and flow eastwards, whilst in Ireland, on the other side of the putative dome, the long rivers rise in the east and flow westwards.
A soft Chalk cover would have allowed rivers to incise deeply and quickly, and penetrate the Lower Palaeozoic rocks. This established a permanent drainage system which persisted in the older rocks long after the Chalk had gone, helping to create the incised plateau appearance of so much of Wales today. The time periods discussed in the talk are much younger: Dr David James is visiting professor at Cardiff University. In November he gave an elegantly simple and splendidly illustrated talk to Mid Wales Geology Club in Newtown, on the factors determining the location of the ore lodes in the Central Wales Mining District.
The rocks containing the ores, mostly lead and zinc sulphide, were deposited in the Welsh Basin in Ordovician and Silurian times. Metals in ionic form, widely disseminated in these rocks at depth, were scavenged by hot fluids flowing slowly under pressure to areas where they accumulated. Eventually the mineral-rich hydrothermal fluids used faults to escape suddenly upwards from depth, depressurise and cool, and precipitate the ores. Subsequent erosion exhumed the ore deposits close to the surface, making mining economic.
Professor James adopted an oil industry reservoir analysis approach to explain the location of the ore lodes. Sites are determined by differences in permeability of the deformed rock after fracturing; and differences in bed thickness due to variable sedimentation on the floor of the extending basin, which slipped on fault lines into half grabens, producing fault blocks dipping down-to-east. Hydrothermal fluids arose mostly from dehydration of rocks during metamorphism, and partly perhaps from water retained in the pores of the original sea-floor sediments.
Over-pressured fluids moved very slowly through the rock towards the surface when permitted to do so by the developing permeability caused by uplift during the Caledonian Orogeny. The rocks were strongly folded and the fluids accumulated in anticlinal apices tops of upward folds and in upward-pointing pinched-out strata. Fluid movement was so slow that sites of mineralisation developed million years after rock deformation and metamorphism. Sandstone beds were initially around 30 percent porous, with interconnected pores creating permeability, allowing fluids to pass.
Softer mudstones were more porous, typically percent, but without comparable interconnection of pores the original mudstone was less permeable. After lithification the rocks became denser and lost their porosity, so most of the later porosity was fracture induced.
Fractured sandstones, common in the Ordovician, transmitted hydrothermal fluids. Shale horizons, more frequent and thicker in the overlying Silurian, were much less permeable, capping and sealing hydrothermal fluid reservoirs in the sandstone. Monograptus sedgwickii shales of the Silurian period were particularly effective as caps as they easily deformed plastically. Faulting under extensional conditions released accumulated mineral-rich fluids from their host rocks by fracturing the impermeable sealing shales.
Some faults in the orefield have throws of hundreds of metres. When fluid in the rock at the top of the fault is suddenly connected to the higher pressure of fluid in the deeper rock at the bottom of the fault, the rocks at the top often exploded, as seen in several striking photographs of orefield hydraulic brecciation shown by the speaker. Competent rock like sandstone is more prone to brittle fracture than less competent, softer, more plastic shale.
Therefore faults tended to initiate in sandstone, which explains the mines in the Formations of Van, Cwmystwyth and Early Silurian Derwenlas. The continental collisions of the Caledonian Orogeny subjected Ordovician and Silurian rocks of the Cambrian Mountains to compression and mild sinistral shear the north-western edge along the Menai Strait was pushed down-left, and the Welsh Border was pushed up-right leaving basin-bounding faults with NNE alignment.
As the region relaxed around million years ago in the early Devonian, compression changed to extension, reversing the shear direction to dextral , opening dominantly ENE faults around the orefield area, and leading to the first of several stages of mineralisation timings are known from study of lead isotopes in the ores.
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Geomechanics predicts that the greater the fluid over-pressure in the fault host rock, the steeper is the dip of the fault in which the lode subsequently forms. The larger lodes often dip steeply, 75 degrees or more, on normal faults produced during extension.