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A Philosophical Study of Birth Regulation John W. Swanke Ph.D. JOHN W. SWANIKE, PH.D. FIES SIBLE ARENTHOO A PHILOSOPHICAL STUDY OF B|RTH.
Table of contents

• What's Wrong with Strict Parenting?
• Account Options
• 4 Types of Parenting Styles and Their Effects on Kids

She is responsible for everything else: how much, how fast, how frequently. If I am careful not to push him, however, I have found he ever so slowly pushes himself along to learn to like new foods. He is so proud when he tries something new! They also are surprised at how much better their children eat when they stop their short-order cooking. To keep up all the work, you have to enjoy your food. Adults who have regular meals eat better, are healthier, and are slimmer. Children and teens who have family meals eat better, feel better about themselves, get along better with other people, and do better in school.

They are less likely to gain too much weight, abuse drugs, smoke, and have sex. In fact, family meals have more to do with raising healthy, happy children than family income, whether the child has one or two parents living in the home, after-school activities, tutors, or church. But as children move through the teen years, families are more likely to eat on the run than have meals together. But hang in there!

Family meals are important! Your child wants to eat and he wants to grow up to eat the food you eat. For him, it is like any other skill such as reading or bike riding — he learns it bit by bit, at his own pace, because he wants to, not because it is your idea. He will eat like a child: some days a lot, other days not so much, only one or two foods and not everything at a meal. What he eats one day he ignores the other. Such controlling tactics backfire. Instead, relax, enjoy your own meal, and teach your child to behave nicely at mealtime.

Sooner of later for some kids much later he will eat almost everything you eat. Children who are allowed eat on the run eat poorly, are picky, and have trouble growing consistently. Children get turned off to certain foods and avoid them when they can when they are pressured into eating certain amounts and types of food. Children eat more for a while, but then they discover their internal regulators and their eating settles down to become like that of other children. Only time will tell whether their weight remains the same or slowly diverges downward to follow a lower growth curve.

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Put simply, the deficit model posits that public unease about novel science and technology is a result of poor scientific literacy; therefore, educating the public about the science behind new technologies will foster acceptance. Levidow and Carr, For example, the US Patent and Trademark Office has argued it cannot incorporate consideration of the moral and social aspects of granting intellectual property rights on living materials into its remit because this would introduce an unacceptable element of uncertainty into assessment procedures which must remain objective Parthasarathy, In other instances, societal concerns may be acknowledged by a regulatory agency but still considered separately from its technical remit, through public fora and engagement exercises such as those deployed by the HFEA during the debates over allowing the creation of admixed embryos to alleviate the shortage of human ova for stem cell research Dyer, In the European debates over regulation of GM foods, most engagement occurred after vociferous public resistance to an approved product, in the hope of creating enough acceptability often through attempts to de-legitimise non-technical concerns to allow the original agenda to proceed.

The equation of non-technical concerns with ethics Levidow and Carr, also means that public debates are often framed in terms of whether it is morally permissible to undertake a particular scientific act, such as destroying an embryo or changing the genetic make-up of a living organism. This is perhaps most vividly illustrated in the creation of a separate line of scholarship about the ethical, legal and social issues ELSI arising from the HGP Myskja et al.

Combined with the deficit model, this means exercises are often framed so that technical assertions cannot be challenged, reinforcing the idea that objections reflect an ill-informed response. Wider discussions about the commercialisation of science, economic aspirations of national governments, and the role of the private sector in envisaging what future agriculture, medicine and reproductive health services should look like, are said to be outside the remit of regulation. While these differ in their focus, e. However, it remains unclear how any resulting public consensus should be measured, let alone how it is expected to be achieved.

Whether by design or serendipity, calls for public consensus allow science to continue pushing at the moral boundaries already in place, testing for strengths and weaknesses to see where pressure may be applied. In part, this is because public engagement has generally been the task of ELSI scholars, while the natural scientists and clinicians get on with the work.

This is clearly demonstrated in both the discussions and the division of expertise in the panels at the Human Gene Summits of and However, there is virtually no likelihood that, should consensus fail to appear, further research and application of CRISPR to the human germline will not proceed. Footnote 4 Just as assisted reproduction has expanded into a cross-border industry where would-be parents frequently travel in order to obtain reproductive services that are illegal in their own country, IVF doctors pursuing controversial innovation also move or open satellite clinics in jurisdictions that are less restrictive Rosemann et al.

Footnote 5 Because courts tend to rule that preservation of family bonds, including non-prosecution of parents who break the law, is in the best interest of the child Van Hoof and Pennings, , this has meant almost any prohibited procedure is available somewhere. Similar dynamics have also been seen with the spread of stem cell clinics Petersen et al. To be meaningful and useful, public debate must therefore move beyond the goal of consensus, which implicitly suggests that there is a single voice, or agreement on how to move forward, that can and must be found.

Taking public concerns seriously that is, as rational and legitimate also means recognising that there are multiple publics and indeed multiple rationalities, and that debate over any particular biotechnology will almost certainly play out differently in different contexts. If consensus means that everyone, or at least the vast majority of people, must agree that a technology is acceptable, then true consensus is very rarely if ever achieved at a societal level—never mind on a global scale.

If debates about using CRISPR to create genetically modify human embryos are to avoid simply repeating the same arguments which have existed since the s, then new approaches are needed that go beyond the polarised notion of rational science versus irrational ignorance, and technical versus moral concerns. This means opening up debates involving both lay people and scientists to include discussion of the context—including the economic and regulatory context s —in which GGE will be deployed. In the next section, we present an alternative approach to understanding public concerns with biotechnologies, with a view to informing our recommendations on the future of germline genome editing debates.

Boundaries and categories, whether formal and official or tacit and unspoken, produce order, the sense of how things are supposed to be, but what is applicable in one context may cease to make sense, may even be offensive, when transposed to another. This can be illustrated with a simple example: soil found in a flowerbed is not dirt. That is where we expect it to be. However, the same soil on the kitchen floor is considered dirt and the normal response is to clean it up. Thus, it helps us see how investigation of the plasticity or malleability of life, which has proved so productive and useful in the laboratory, also challenges categories and distinctions that have meaning and are important in everyday life outside the laboratory.

Each of these accusations evokes a sense of some sort of order being transgressed, whether that order is imposed by nature, divine fiat or aesthetic and moral sensibilities. Cell culture, for example, problematizes the boundary between what is alive and what is dead or inert. Consider Henrietta Lacks, who died many years ago but whose cancer cells, in the form of the immortalised HeLa cell line, are still alive and growing in many laboratories round the world Skloot, Reproductive cloning also blurs distinctions as it makes a new person whose genome replicates someone already living, or perhaps already dead the difference in age typically distinguishing cloning from ordinary twins.

Thus, hybrid biotechnologies appear to pose a threat to the shared meanings, values and rules of conduct that make communal social living and organisation possible.

The hybrid-generating power of the life sciences is rarely experienced by the scientists themselves as unnatural or disturbing because the techniques they use have long since been normalised within the field. This perspective is the result of years of training to seek knowledge in a particular manner, encompassing both ontology what kinds of objects genes, cells, embryos, etc. The array of practical tools and techniques for manipulating cells, genes, proteins and other elements of living systems are learnt, along with the cognitive stance that makes sense of them, through the process of training from undergraduate to post-graduate to postdoctoral to senior scientist.

As Douglas , p. It is, therefore, culturally specific, but contemporary societies are much more heterogeneous and fragmented than tribal groups or the epistemic cultures of scientific disciplines. Accordingly, there is often a range of different responses and attitudes to novel biotechnologies within any given population, some of which are voiced more loudly than others.

Different forms of pollution may produce a similar result, despite different cultural or epistemic rationales, or vice versa. At the same time, the infrastructure and practices of the biotechnology industry have become increasingly universal as more countries compete to enter the global market. Thus the infrastructure of the biotechnology and fertility industries pushes matter across normative boundaries between private and public property, between publicly funded academic science and for-profit industry, between the body and the patent office, and between pure science—investigating what something is or how it works—and forms of applied science which are meant to see what things can be made to do.

Ultimately, each new symbol of biotechnology evokes culturally specific reactions and simultaneously becomes a new instance to refight old battles. At the beginning of this paper, we noted that it was not just a matter of what He did, but when. But perhaps more important, He contravened what might be the most important cleanliness taboo because it is the only one approaching unanimous agreement by all parties in the field: that GGE is not safe enough to be used yet. This could be seen in arguments that the experiments were premature, and could damage the legitimacy of the field.

However, He could also be seen as polluting the sacred ritual of public consensus seeking by the timing of the announcement, which effectively hijacked the carefully curated agenda of the second Human Gene Summit, turning it instead into a media circus which—as feared from the start—forced the entire field into a defensive position from which it is still trying to emerge. CRISPR excites scientists and clinicians because it opens new possibilities for research and innovation, but mindful of past controversies, they also worry that a public backlash against germline genome editing could threaten both somatic i.

This fear of a public backlash shapes the field in particular ways; even those who champion GGE for human enhancement are enjoined to limit the scope of their research to what is within their so-called social licence to operate. Footnote 6 Calls not to operate before there is public consensus are a key part of this protective strategy. Let us be clear that we are not arguing against dialogue and engagement. These elements are best considered as acting cumulatively, with each reinforcing the other.

In the preceding sections, we have tried to situate CRISPR in its context as a new biotechnology, but one which does not represent a significant departure from the trajectory of the field. Rather, the birth of two genetically edited children is the long-expected, yet still seemingly premature, culmination of experiments aimed at manipulating DNA which began in the s. The history of the life sciences especially molecular biology is one of progressively investigating the malleability of life, so that for its practitioners moving, mixing and mutating its elements has become a perfectly normal, acceptable way of producing knowledge.

As with the muddy road from IVF to human cloning to mitochondrial donation, sustaining boundaries between therapeutic and reproductive applications may be more difficult than might be hoped. While the boundary between somatic and germline editing is reinforced through the Human Gene Summits and other such discussions, the context in which those boundaries have been constructed and will likely be dismantled is not discussed.

In such a highly competitive industry, history has already shown us that once one clinic innovates, the sector will shortly follow. To some extent, this lack may have been an artefact of a particular political moment in which other things—climate change, far-right extremism and an unstable White House—were dominating both news cycles and the public mind, exhausting the capacity to worry about two children born through some obscure technology in China.

Rather than a social license to operate, this indicates a not entirely unfounded pessimism that whatever objections might be raised, the science will continue, as has been the case with embryonic stem cells or GMOs. We see this weariness as the inevitable result of a deficit approach which frames rational science as struggling against an ignorant public.

One reason this practice continues is because it privileges scientific expertise and the scientific worldview as the starting point for being able to have any valid say in these discussions Jasanoff, This allows those with technical expertise to remain on familiar, quantifiable ground in which science is a value-free account based on reason and evidence alone, and avoid questions which are non-quantifiable and outside their narrow expertise. This dualistic stance actively favours the silo approach, where scientific research is permitted to continue unimpeded with the justification of amassing the data needed to satisfy objective regulatory criteria for safety and efficacy, while non-technical societal concerns are dealt with separately as subjective matters that cannot be adjudicated by evidence.

Within this context, potential harms can only be considered as issues of safety and efficacy, while contextual factors such as facilitating markets, distribution of benefits and risks, and complexities of global governance are bracketed out.