21 Graves near Shanghai and Canton. 22 Graves on river . be sure, famous books of study and travel in rural regions, and some of them, as Arthur .. who followed his crop of wheat on his small holding with one of onions and the school belonging to the Dai Nippon Agricultural Association, and since G the .
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There are a variety of functions agricultural cooperatives may engage in. They may "bargain over the terms of sale of their members' production to proprietary firms, in which case they are known as bargaining associations. Presumably, the managing owners of a firm have more incentive to be efficient than the hired manager of a co-op. Although incentive payments can be used to encourage the management of a cooperative to be more efficient, "members and directors of cooperatives have traditionally not been generous employers because management compensation has been viewed primarily as an expense that comes out of the members' pockets.
Cooperation is not only a means of organizing economic activity; it has been and is a social philosophy and a political movement. The theme is self-help and communal effort to benefit all members Because a cooperative "pays patronage dividends at a single or uniform rate to all patrons based on the dollar volume of their business, the result is a series of wealth transfers from the members whose purchases produce a higher net margin to those whose purchases were relatively unprofitable or produced a loss. According to the noted historian C.
Vann Woodward, after "the Southern farmer had lost his independence, his industrial autonomy. In the grip of the lien system--which more universally characterized the post-bellum economy than ever slavery described the ante- bellum system--the farmer, former masters, the majority of them, along with former slaves and yeomen, had been reduced to a state of peonage to the town merchant. The lien system converted the Southern economy into a vast pawn shop.
Its evil effects did not end when the farmer signed away his future crop, for that act merely started a vicious circle of compounded evils. This caused Southern farming to become vastly more dependent upon cotton than before the War and meant farmers had to purchase food from town merchants.
Through monopoly power, the "trusts" kept high the price of many of the Southern farmer's inputs, such as jute bagging for his cotton, and railroad rates. Banks either would not lend to him or charged exorbitant rates. This rise in the number of farms was accompanied by a growth in the number of owners, managers, and tenants Farmers harvested over , more acres of cotton in than they had in The large number of tenant farmers who came into being after the War Between the States in Georgia and other Southern states and the resulting shrinkage of average farm size has caused many to improperly characterize Southern farming after If, for example, Robert P.
Brooks observed in his study of Georgia agriculture, when an earlier census was taken there were twenty laborers on a farm, if when the next census was taken these men had become share tenants on the same farm, it would then be reported as twenty farms. Yet, not only would the tenants' work be directed-- perhaps very closely--by the owner of the land, some of the work might be jointly performed as it had in earlier wage labor or slave labor days.
Only in the case of cash tenants renters , he contends, did the tenant normally have a significant degree of independence, and, unfortunately, these tenants tended to exploit the land. As a whole, American agriculture prospered during World War I, but it contracted after the war as European agriculture recovered.
However, cotton farming was "not highly prosperous even during the war years. Although most sectors of the economy recovered relatively quickly, "agriculture did not ever fully recover," and in the "years following , the cotton industry experienced little, if any, prosperity. What the root cause of Georgia's cotton farmers' problem was seems clear. From to , the United States produced 64 percent of the world's cotton. By , when world output was higher than ever before, the United States produced only 37 percent.
Competitively, farmers in the Southeast were handicapped relative to Western farmers, whose land was not worn out and whose farms were larger and flatter and not so plagued with disease, weeds, and pests--the most disastrous of which was the boll weevil.
Also, the typical Southeastern farmer depended upon undependable rainfall, while the typical farmer in the Far West depended upon dependable irrigation. Trusts and speculators could only add to these fundamental problems. Georgia's dependency on cotton, claims a historian, "was the most important factor leading to the agricultural depression of the s. Continuous cotton planting sapped the soil's strength, and fertilizers were either too expensive, or, for many, simply unknown.
Poor farming practices eventually caused irreversible damage by erosion Georgia's farmers might have ridden out this slump, but a small 'winged demon,' the boll weevil, administered the coup de grace which sent the state tumbling into an agricultural depression.
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After studying data from the latter half of the nineteenth century, historian Stephen E. Ambrose concluded that there were substantial differences between the cost per pound of producing cotton in the various states of the South. Local prices of cotton varied from those in New York, Charleston, and other port cities. Cotton prices also varied seasonally, being the lowest at harvest time, when most farmers had to sell, and the highest in late winter and early spring.
These fluctuations often "represented the margin of possible profit. As a result, cotton farmers who pooled their cotton would have obtained a higher price for their cotton if they sold it as it was harvested rather than having turned it over to a cooperative to market it and, therefore, receive the average pool price. Charles Simon Barrett, long time leader of Farmers Union, was convinced that the " According to Ambrose, it is clear that "the yearly averages of cotton prices which most historians cite are of little value.
Further, it is almost impossible to contend that the Farmers' Alliance grew because 'Southern farmers' could not make a profit in cotton. Such generalizations are meaningless. The origin of the Farmers' Alliance was diffuse. The Alliance said the preacher president of the Alliance in one Georgia county, that the "Alliance was born in heaven. The Southern Alliance "had more vigorous, effective, and prominent leaders; it was more centralized and better organized. And first and last it was more radical. It became a national organization in In an attempt to raise farmers' incomes it formed cooperatives and withheld crops from the market.
Initially it was a secret order. Dues were low so poor farmers could afford to join. Membership was limited to farmers and farm laborers and other rural residents: Ultimately, non-farmer members became so influential that some of them were purged. By , internal dissension had caused membership to decline. Conflict centered around some farmers' objection to "outsiders" being members, "political" activity by ex-Populists. The following year Gresham died and Charles S.
Barrett, "who largely personified the Union and its program for the next twenty-two years," was elected president. Although by the s the Union was a vocal supporter of federal aid to farmers, the stance of Union in its early years was quite different. It opposed the centralization of government and the " At the Union's convention, a resolution was passed which called for public schools to establish courses in economic and governmental affairs.
Weedpatch Camp , one of the clean, utility-supplied camps operated by the Resettlement Administration , a New Deal agency, offers better conditions but does not have enough resources to care for all the needy families. Nonetheless, as a Federal facility, the camp protects the migrants from harassment by California deputies. In response to the exploitation , Casy becomes a labor organizer and tries to recruit for a labor union.
The remaining Joads work as strikebreakers in a peach orchard, where Casy is involved in a strike that eventually turns violent. When Tom Joad witnesses Casy's fatal beating, he kills the attacker and flees as a fugitive. The Joads later leave the orchard for a cotton farm, where Tom is at risk of being arrested for the homicide. Tom bids his mother farewell and promises to work for the oppressed. Rose of Sharon's baby is stillborn. Ma Joad remains steadfast and forces the family through the bereavement.
With rain, the Joads' dwelling is flooded and they move to higher ground. In the final chapter of the book, the family takes shelter from the flood in an old barn. Inside they find a young boy and his father, who is dying of starvation.
Rose of Sharon takes pity on the man and offers him her breast milk to save him from starvation. The largest implications lie with Tom Joad and Jim Casy, who are both interpreted as Christ-like figures at certain intervals within the novel. These two are often interpreted together, with Jim Casy representing Jesus Christ in the early days of his ministry, up until his death, which is interpreted as representing the death of Christ.
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From there, Tom takes over, rising in Casy's place as the Christ figure risen from the dead. However, the religious imagery is not limited to these two characters. Scholars have regularly inspected other characters and plot points within the novel, including Ma Joad, Rose of Sharon, Rose of Sharon's stillborn child, and Uncle John. In an article first published in , Ken Eckert even compared the migrant's movement west as a reversed version of the slaves' escape from Egypt in Exodus.
This is the beginning—from "I" to "we". If you who own the things people must have could understand this, you might preserve yourself. If you could separate causes from results, if you could know that Paine , Marx , Jefferson , Lenin were results, not causes, you might survive.
But that you cannot know. For the quality of owning freezes you forever into "I", and cuts you off forever from the "we". Steinbeck was known to have borrowed from field notes taken during by Farm Security Administration worker and author Sanora Babb.
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While Babb collected personal stories about the lives of the displaced migrants for a novel she was developing, her supervisor, Tom Collins, shared her reports with Steinbeck, then working at the San Francisco News. The newspaper commissioned that work on migrant workers from the Midwest in California's agriculture industry. It was later compiled and published separately. While writing the novel at his home, Greenwood Lane, in what is now Monte Sereno, California , Steinbeck had unusual difficulty devising a title.
The Grapes of Wrath, suggested by his wife Carol Steinbeck, [13] was deemed more suitable than anything by the author. Mine eyes have seen the glory of the coming of the Lord: He is trampling out the vintage where the grapes of wrath are stored; He hath loosed the fateful lightning of His terrible swift sword: His truth is marching on. These lyrics refer, in turn, to the biblical passage Revelation This and other biblical passages had inspired a long tradition of imagery of Christ in the winepress , in various media. And the angel thrust in his sickle into the earth, and gathered the vine of the earth, and cast it into the great winepress of the wrath of God.
And the winepress was trodden without the city, and blood came out of the winepress, even unto the horse bridles, by the space of a thousand and six hundred furlongs. The phrase also appears at the end of chapter 25 in Steinbeck's book, which describes the purposeful destruction of food to keep the price high:. In the souls of the people the grapes of wrath are filling and growing heavy, growing heavy for the vintage.
The image invoked by the title serves as a crucial symbol in the development of both the plot and the novel's greater thematic concerns: This is suggested but not realized within the novel. When preparing to write the novel, Steinbeck wrote: Steinbeck scholar John Timmerman sums up the book's influence: At the time of publication, Steinbeck's novel "was a phenomenon on the scale of a national event. It was publicly banned and burned by citizens, it was debated on national radio; but above all, it was read.
The book was noted for Steinbeck's passionate depiction of the plight of the poor, and many of his contemporaries attacked his social and political views. Bryan Cordyack writes, "Steinbeck was attacked as a propagandist and a socialist from both the left and the right of the political spectrum. The most fervent of these attacks came from the Associated Farmers of California; they were displeased with the book's depiction of California farmers' attitudes and conduct toward the migrants.
They denounced the book as a 'pack of lies' and labeled it 'communist propaganda'". Steinbeck had visited the camps well before publication of the novel [18] and argued their inhumane nature destroyed the settlers' spirit. In , the Nobel Prize committee cited Grapes of Wrath as a "great work" and as one of the committee's main reasons for granting Steinbeck the Nobel Prize for Literature. In , French newspaper Le Monde of Paris ranked The Grapes of Wrath as seventh on its list of the best books of the 20th century. The book was quickly made into a famed, Hollywood movie of the same name directed by John Ford and starring Henry Fonda as Tom Joad.
The first part of the film version follows the book fairly accurately. However, the second half and the ending, in particular, differ significantly from the book. He based his famous last words on Tom Joad's final speech: The song "Here Comes that Rainbow Again" by Kris Kristofferson is based on the scene in the roadside diner where Pa Joad buys a loaf of bread and two candy sticks for Ruthie and Winfield.
The progressive rock band Camel released an album, titled Dust and Dreams , inspired by the novel. American rock singer-songwriter Bruce Springsteen named his 11th studio album, The Ghost of Tom Joad , after the character. The first track on the album is titled " The Ghost of Tom Joad ".
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The song — and to a lesser extent, the other songs on the album — draws comparisons between the Dust Bowl and modern times. The opera made its world premiere in February , to favorable local reviews. Bad Religion lead vocalist, Greg Graffin , is a fan of Steinbeck's. Gary Sinise played Tom Joad for its entire run of performances on Broadway in One of these performances was filmed and shown on PBS the following year.
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. This article is about the novel. For other uses, see Grapes of Wrath disambiguation. This section relies largely or entirely on a single source. Relevant discussion may be found on the talk page. Please help improve this article by introducing citations to additional sources.