Abusos sexuales en la infancia. Abordaje psicológico y jurídico (COLECCIÓN PSICOLOGÍA UNIVERSIDAD) (Spanish Edition). Mar 1 by María Lameiras .
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- CHILD ABUSE PREVENTION
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We must stress that the needs specified in Table II are framed in the context of developed countries with an established welfare state. Whilst in developing countries the basic childhood needs food, hygiene, education, socio-sanitary protection, and others are still not satisfied and, on the whole, this implies an extreme vulnerability with respect to abuse, in the developed countries we consider as necessary for childhood welfare intermediate or higher level needs UNICEF, In this sense, it can be observed how the way in which the different basic needs categories in Table II are defined also reflects the presence of psychosocial needs, in that it not only describes what the needs are, but also how to satisfy them.
An environment which is structured according to social groups and scenarios family, school, adults, peer group, services of different importance depending on the psychosocial and developmental stage. Hence, the family represents an opportunity for socialisation and development. However, it is also within the family where shortcomings and unsatisfied needs show up very early, and make an immediate impact. Thus, it is not surprising that the behaviour of parental and attachment figures is an important aspect in any child abuse prevention strategy. Such programmes would be designed from a suitable starting point for orienting their goals both towards strengthening the development of abilities in the child that allow for adequate socio-emotional learning and towards the promotion of parental abilities Wolfe, On the contrary, it is both a tributary and an active agent, direct or indirect, of its socio-economic and cultural environment, through the influences and transactions maintained with that environment.
It is for this reason that the wider context will be analysed and described. Social and cultural reference: The cultural context, attitudes and values constitute an object of study in anthropology, sociology and social psychology, which is difficult to specify and no less difficult to operationalise when we try to measure it or, more ambitiously, to exert some influence on it for prevention purposes. However, regardless of the difficulties and methodological challenges, the social and cultural framework is an inevitable reference, even more so when we try to define a comprehensive panorama on abuse prevention, and most of all, if we take into account the normative and cultural context which sanctions or tolerates certain educational and rearing practices.
Some considerations that should be borne in mind are the following:. Garbarino , an expert in the field, identifies two social conditions necessary for child abuse. On the one hand, there must be a cultural justification for the use of force against children and, on the other, the abusing family must be isolated from other families which can provide access to information on infancy, and from community support systems. Moreover, there is some consensus that abuse and abandonment prevention, as well as early detection of risk situations, will only be successful if efforts are directed at producing a greater involvement of society Dhooper, Royse and Wolfe, This hypothesis has been used as a foundation for -among many other things- developing information campaigns for the global population with respect to rearing and child abuse.
Most of the significant changes occurring in society do not come from specific efforts directed at changing individual behaviours, but as a result of more global and cultural changes. Clinicians, and those who are in some way dedicated to intervention for purposes of educational or social change at the "micro" level individuals, small groups and family may often feel satisfied with the specific changes resulting from their intervention.
However, every psychotherapy project or programme for change, regardless of its theoretical background, is faced with the problem of how to maintain in the long term the results and changes effected. This will be difficult without a supportive social and cultural environment. Professor Garbarino uses the car and birds metaphor to illustrate the problem: In applying this metaphor to social changes, we mean to suggest that after the intervention of experts and professionals with their sophisticated educational strategies there are changes in rearing techniques which, on occasions, may be quite spectacular in their effects on many risk families.
However, as professionals begin to leave those families to their own devices, and they continue to live and behave in the ways dictated by their daily life and conditions, it is likely that the risks which justified the intervention will again impose themselves. A comprehensive prevention strategy should consider influencing in some way or the other those variables that contribute to the stabilising of social life.
These expectations may have their origin in erroneous beliefs about what a child of a certain age can or cannot do. Surveys and studies on attitudes and opinions applied in Spain in the last few years reflect a positive change in the population as far as a greater rejection of violence and abuse is concerned Juste et al. In Table III the change occurring in the Spanish general population with regard to their own experience of abuse can be observed.
Data provided by surveys on family violence raise doubts as to whether the results reflect a real change in attitudes in the population or the social and cultural stereotypes existing in the society at a given moment Strauss and Gelles, Despite such doubts, both social representations and opinions or attitudes declared by a given society about phenomena such as child abuse can be considered as contributing to the knowledge of what is accepted or rejected, and is felt to be appropriate or inappropriate, with regard to the matter in question. Thus, behavioural and expressive forms that are positively evaluated or rejected, what is expected or not expected of people belonging to a certain age, gender, occupation, religious, or civil status group, among othervariables constitutes the background of what is established as customary, as possible and as desirable.
All of this makes up the social ideology, the social fabric of expectations and values. Thus, in the past few years numerous TVprogrammes and series for different age groups have been shown that are oriented towards the promotion of positive social values, such as parent-child dialogue and the rejection of violence within the family. However, we often find at the same time that the media in general contribute to fomenting perceptions and ideas of abuse which far from represent a realistic way of coping with the problem.
The Childhood Rights Convention and the most recent normative evolution in developed countries, together with a greater knowledge about children, are contributing to the establishment of a current of opinion among professionals that considers children as citizens with rights, and not as mere objects of legal protection, and that advocates the need to establish political measures specifically directed at children as a social group, rather than exclusively as part of the family unit Wintersberger, Thus, a certain consensus is forming in relation to values and rights in childhood Melton, , which even affect the principles orienting the machinery of social attention to childhood.
This socio-cultural reconceptualisation of childhood also leads to a reconsideration of both traditional indicators for the assessment of programmes, and of socio-demographic statistics, as children become the principal unit of analysis at both the family and the macrosocial level. Jensen and Saporiti, Even the separation from official statistics of secondary data about children as units of observation has been proposed.
This can be of great utility for both researchers and planners in the assessment of the life conditions of children Wintersberger and Qvortrup, Cohn Donnelly , director of the US National Committee for Child Abuse Prevention, reviewed international abuse prevention efforts over the previous decade. In her review she also set the challenge for the new decade, which was summarised as to do more of the same that has been done public education, social commitment, legislation, development of prevention services and to take on new challenges impact of drug addition on parenthood, special attention to parents living in poverty or social difficulty, violence in the mass media, and orienting child protection agencies towards their original function of helping families.
There would be three means or strategies which, in general terms, match those proposed by Anne H. Preventive action continues to need guidance from research and theoretical developments which aid understanding of the phenomenon of violence. We will hardly be able to orient prevention if we do not know the answers to some of the basic questions: Why do people behave in the way they do?
Why are there people who, in certain circumstances, behave violently, while others do not? What are the most probable risk factors or variables that can cause violent acts in such circumstances? What is the best way to protect children from the effects or consequences of abuse? Why are there children who are not affected by adversity and violence, even when it is present?
Research and theoretical development on violence are seen as basic nutrients on which to establish the orientation and direction of preventive actions. It is true that, today, there is a great deal of research and many theoretical models, and some of the answers to these questions are beginning to be sketched, but it is no less true that there is still a long way to go. Many of the existing theoretical models, especially the so-called ecological models Beisky, ; Bronfenbrenner, are rather organisational models for orienting preventive actions, but they need to be fed by other more basic paradigms in order to respond to many of these questions.
Other models Cichetti and Lynch, ; Morton, Twentyman and Azar, ; Azar, ; Milner, , though providing partial explanation levels, have shown the need for continuing basic research on child abuse, in order to specify existing relations between different levels in conceptual models Cicchetti and Lynch, It is also necessary to adapt these models to the socio-demographic particularities of each community and evaluate the specific weight for each main risk factor involved in child abuse according to cultural characteristics, and so to orient preventive action at community levels Morales et al.
In this sense, public administrations and university departments should continue, and even increase, their efforts to develop research on childhood in general and on children at risk in particular. This involves questioning the current social order, since it implies reducing or alleviating existing socio-economic inequalities. In this sense, struggling against violence may mean pursuing the utopia of abolishing inequalities.
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Participation of all members in everyday family life is one of the most solid bases on which to establish space for the development of harmonious co-existence, in that the family constitutes the prime scenario of socialisation. All of this, in turn, implies the use of other practices and new learning in relation to improving communication and the negotiation and resolution of problems of everyday co-existence.
In this sense, the development of parental competence is considered from a dual perspective. On the one hand, it involves the definition of specific educational principles and strategies orienting training programmes. On the other, it implies eliminating the isolation of families at risk, so that they can gain access to the most advanced attentional values and criteria relating to childhood that exist in their social and cultural context.
Change in parental behaviour, through training programmes, has been one of the most frequently-used strategies for the prevention of physical abuse and abandonment. Most of the programmes that aim to improve parental capacity or competence are based on a series of principles and conditions which, after a review of the relevant literature Heider, ; Rosenthal and Jacobson, ; Bandura, ; Cerezo, ; Wallace, H. In an excellent review, McMillan et al conclude that integrated programmes, in which home support services and other community services are combined, are the most effective kind for high risk families.
The interested reader may consult other interesting references Olds et al. Social isolation is one of the risk variables described in child abuse literature. What society demands, culturally and socially, with regard to what is considered to be proper treatment of children, ceases to have an effect if the isolation of a family makes these cultural patterns inaccessible.
CHILD ABUSE PREVENTION
Moreover, social isolation favours the fact that primary socialisation scenarios become even more private, leading to arbitrary decisions about what is good and bad for those who still do not have the competence to decide for themselves. Integrating families within the social networks of the community in which they live is the best method for correcting the perverse effects to which isolation leads. However, the great problem we are facing is that, on the one hand, these social networks often do not exist, or are extremely difficult to generate. In our country Spain , with the exception of the strong neighbourhood movement in the seventies, during the transition to democracy, there is no well-structured social fabric.
On the other hand, families in high social risk situations are precisely those which usually find themselves involved in social exclusion processes. Thus, the answer to this problem is not easy and -as nearly always- transcends the capacities of child protection services. Some lines of action are seen as highly relevant for confronting the problem of isolation:.
Cities, districts and residential areas in general are behaviour scenarios which, as such, can promote either social and neighbourhood cohesion or segregation. The verticality of cities with large, isolated apartment blocks, with no common spaces or facilities which bring together neighbours, parents and children from different families, results in the typical urban image that impedes the development of social and neighbourhood networks.
Individual decisions to share interests and experiences with other people must, at least, have the same opportunities as the decision to become isolated. Specific programmes and services for the poor or for minority cultural groups at social risk may, paradoxically, stigmatise the very population it is trying to help.
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Assistance services or programmes for abused children, or those at risk, must be linked to a normalised network of services and resources accessible for the general population. In some cases, families may become socialised through their children, who have access to services used by children from different social strata. An essential feature of the community concept is the control and power dimension Sue and Zane, The need for a global and anticipatory approach to preventive action leads us to ask serious questions about the prevailing style of services, whereby the responsibility for protection against abuse is deposited, reactively and almost exclusively, in the hands of the social services.
Below are some of the most relevant observations in this regard:. Behav Sci Law ; 9: Coaching children about sexual abuse: A pilot study of professionals' perceptions. Differentiating between Parental Alienation Syndrome and bona fide abuse neglect. Sexual abuse validity discriminators in the divorced or divorcing family. Issues ; 2 1: Thoennes N, Tjaden PG: The extent, nature, and validity of sexual abuse allegations in custody visitation disputes.
False allegations of abuse and neglect when parents separate. National Council on Children's Rights: CAPTA revised to provide relief for false allegations. Speak Out for Children, Fall - Winter Erroneous concerns about child sexual abuse. Garrido E, Masip J: The usefulness of the Criteria-Based Content Analysis technique in distinguishing between truthful and fabricated allegations.
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Psychol Publ Pol Law ; 3 4: Detecting lies and deceit. The psychology of lying and the implications for professional practice. Steller M, Kohnken G: Credibility assessment of children's testimonies in sexual abuse cases.
En Raskin DC Ed. Psychological methods in criminal investigation and evidence. Pap Psicol ; Child Sexual Behavior Inventory: The Children's Attributions and Perceptions Scale, a new measure of sexual abuse-related factors. J Consult Clin Psych ; 23 2: Children, language and the law. Montana Law Rev ; A reformulation of parental alienation syndrome. Fam Court Review ; 39 3: Ediciones Universidad de Oviedo; Abordaje de un caso desde el juzgado de Familia de Oviedo Asturias.
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