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The schedule was for 3 days from June 20th (Fri) to 22nd(Sun) The brochures name is 'The Seed of Hope in the Heart' in English and '在心中希望的種子' in Chinese. He finished his work 1 year after the earthquake in March learn from ~ knowledge of protection', meeting Taiwanese and Japanese.
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- Introduction: Polar Regions, People and the Planet
Sea ice characteristics differ between the Arctic and Antarctic. Expansion of winter sea ice in the Arctic is limited by land, and ice circulates within the central Arctic basin, some of which survives the summer melt season to form multi-year ice. Arctic sea ice variability and impacts on communities includes indigenous knowledge and local knowledge from across the circumpolar Arctic Cross-Chapter Box 3 in Chapter 1. The Antarctic continent is surrounded by sea ice which interacts with adjacent ice shelves; winter season expansion is limited by the influence of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current ACC.
The pan-Arctic loss of sea ice cover is a prominent indicator of climate change. Changes are largest in summer and smallest in winter, with the strongest trends in September —; summer month with the lowest sea ice cover of —83, km 2 yr —1 — Summer Arctic sea ice loss since is unprecedented in years based on historical reconstructions Walsh et al.
Stippled regions indicate the trends that are statistically insignificant. Approximately half of the observed Arctic summer sea ice loss is driven by increased concentrations of atmospheric greenhouse gases, with the remainder attributed to internal climate variability Kay et al. The sea ice albedo feedback increased air temperature reduces sea ice cover, allowing more energy to be absorbed at the surface, fostering more melt is a key driver of sea ice loss Perovich and Polashenski, ; Stroeve et al.
Other drivers include increased warm, moist air intrusions into the Arctic during both winter Box 3.
A lack of complete process understanding limits a more definitive differentiation between anthropogenic versus internal drivers of summer Arctic sea ice loss Serreze et al. The unabated reduction in Arctic summer sea ice since AR5 means contributions to additional global radiative forcing Flanner et al. Although Arctic ice freeze-up is occurring later Section 3. Later freeze-up also delays snowfall accumulation on sea ice, leading to a thinner and less insulating snowpack Section 3.
These two negative feedbacks help to mitigate sudden and irreversible loss of Arctic sea ice Armour et al. Total Antarctic sea ice cover exhibits no significant trend over the period of satellite observations Figure 3. A significant positive trend in mean annual ice cover between and Comiso et al. The overall Antarctic sea ice extent trend is composed of near-compensating regional changes, with rapid ice loss in the Amundsen and Bellingshausen seas counteracted by rapid ice gain in the Weddell and Ross seas Holland, Figure 3.
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These regional trends are strongly seasonal in character Holland, ; only the western Ross Sea has a trend that is statistically significant in all seasons, relative to the variance during the period of satellite observations. Multiple factors contribute to the regionally variable nature of Antarctic sea ice extent trends Matear et al. Sea ice trends are closely related to meridional wind trends high confidence Holland and Kwok, ; Haumann et al. These meridional wind trends are linked to Pacific variability Coggins and McDonald, ; Meehl et al.
Ozone depletion may also affect meridional winds Fogt and Zbacnik, ; England et al. Coupled climate models indicate that anthropogenic warming at the surface is delayed by the Southern Ocean circulation, which transports heat downwards into the deep ocean Armour et al. This overturning circulation Cross-Chapter Box 7 in Chapter 3 , along with differing cloud and lapse rate feedbacks Goosse et al.
Because Antarctic sea ice extent has remained below climatological values since , there is still potential for longer-term changes to emerge in the Antarctic Meehl et al. Historical surface observations Murphy et al. Arctic sea ice has thinned through volume reductions in satellite altimeter retrievals Laxon et al.
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Data from multiple satellite altimeter missions show declines in Arctic Basin ice thickness from to of —0. There is emerging evidence that this sea ice volume loss may be unprecedented over the past century Schweiger et al.
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The shift to thinner seasonal sea ice contributes to further ice extent reductions through enhanced summer season melt via increased energy absorption Nicolaus et al. Surface observations of Antarctic sea ice thickness are extremely sparse Worby et al.
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There are no consistent long-term observations from which trends in ice volume may be derived. Calibrated model simulations suggest that ice thickness trends closely follow those of ice concentration Massonnet et al. Satellite altimeter datasets of Antarctic sea ice thickness are emerging Paul et al. There is high confidence that the Arctic sea ice melt season has extended by 3 days per decade since due earlier melt onset, and 7 days per decade due to later freeze-up Stroeve and Notz, This longer melt season is consistent with the observed loss of sea ice extent and thickness Sections 3.
While the melt onset trends are smaller, they play a large role in the earlier development of open water Stroeve et al.
Introduction: Polar Regions, People and the Planet
Observed reductions in the duration of seasonal sea ice cover are reflected in community-based observations of decreased length of time in which activities can safely take place on sea ice Laidler et al. Winds associated with the climatological Arctic sea level pressure pattern drive the Beaufort Gyre Dewey et al.
There is high confidence that sea ice drift speeds have increased since , both within the Arctic Basin and through Fram Strait Rampal et al. Sea ice volume flux estimates through Fram Strait are now available from satellite altimeter datasets Ricker et al. Observations of extreme Arctic sea ice deformation is attributed to the combination of decreased ice thickness and increased ice motion Itkin et al.
Satellite estimates of sea ice drift velocity show significant trends in Antarctic ice drift Holland and Kwok, Increased northward drift in the Ross Sea and decreased northward drift in the Bellingshausen and Weddell seas agree with the respective ice extent gains and losses in these regions, but there is only medium confidence in these trends due to a small number of ice drift data products derived from temporally inconsistent satellite records Haumann et al.
The few long term surface auger hole records of Arctic landfast sea ice thickness all exhibit thinning trends in springtime maximum sea ice thickness since the mids high confidence : declines of 11 cm per decade in the Barents Sea Gerland et al. These ice-plugs were in place continuously from the start of observations in the early s, until they disappeared during the anomalously warm summer of , and they have rarely re-formed since Pope et al.
The loss of this perennial sea ice is associated with reduced landfast ice duration in the northern Canadian Arctic Archipelago Galley et al. Arctic landfast ice is important to northern residents as a platform for travel, hunting, and access to offshore regions Sections 3.
Reports of thinning, less stable, and less predictable landfast ice have been documented by residents of coastal communities in Alaska Eisner et al. The impact of changing prevailing wind forcing on local ice conditions has been specifically noted Rosales and Chapman, including impacts on the landfast ice edge and polynyas Box 3. Long-term records of Antarctic landfast ice are limited in space and time Stammerjohn and Maksym, , with a high degree of regional variability in trends Fraser et al. Snow accumulation on sea ice inhibits sea ice melt through a high albedo, but the insulating properties limit sea ice growth Sturm and Massom, and inhibits photosynthetic light important for in- and under-ice biota from reaching the bottom of the ice Mundy et al.
If snow on first-year ice is sufficiently thick, it can depress the ice below the sea level surface, which forms snow-ice due to surface flooding.
Despite the importance of snow on sea ice Webster et al. The primary source of snow depth on Arctic sea ice are based on observations collected decades ago Warren et al. Airborne radar retrievals of snow depth on sea ice provide more recent estimates, but spatial and temporal sampling is highly discontinuous Kurtz and Farrell, Multi-source time series provide evidence of declining snow depth on Arctic sea ice Webster et al.
Ocean temperatures and associated heat fluxes have a primary influence on sea ice e. Warming trends have continued: August trends for — reveal summer mixed layer temperatures increasing at about 0. This is primarily the result of increased absorption of solar radiation accompanying sea ice loss Perovich, Between and , the decrease in Arctic Ocean albedo corresponded to more solar energy input to the ocean virtually certain of approximately 6.
While Atlantic Water Layer temperatures appear to show less variability since , total heat content in this layer continues to increase Polyakov et al. Polyakov et al. Both models and observations show that, relative to its size Table SM3. Multi-decadal warming of the Southern Ocean has been attributed to anthropogenic factors, especially the role of greenhouse gases but also ozone depletion Armour et al.
Ocean heat content trend 0— m depth during — and — for the global ocean and Southern Ocean. Values in curved brackets are percentages of heat gain by the Southern Ocean relative to the global ocean. Data sources are as per Table SM3. Surface warming during — was strongest along the northern flank of the ACC , contrasting with cooling further south Figure 3. There is high confidence that this pattern of change is driven by upper-ocean overturning circulation and mixing Cross-Chapter Box 7 in Chapter 3 , whereby heat uptake at the surface by newly upwelled waters is transmitted to the ocean interior in intermediate depth layers Armour et al.
Whilst temperature trends in the ACC itself are driven predominantly by air-sea flux changes Swart et al. Below the surface south of the ACC, warming extends close to Antarctica, intruding onto the continental shelf in the Amundsen-Bellingshausen Sea where temperature increases of 0. This latter warming may be driven by changes in wind forcing Spence et al. After around , improved upper ocean heat content estimates became available via Argo profiling floats Section 1. This accords with Roemmich et al. The smaller proportion for — c.
There is high confidence that the Southern Ocean has increased its role in global ocean heat content in recent years compared with the past several decades.