Cuando los cerditos negros sueñan (Spanish Edition)

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Obviously, very few translations if any can follow all of these "laws," and this has led to sterile discussions about the impossibility of translating. Recently, interest has been concentrated on which law should have priority in which text, depending on the different functions of a SLT and the purpose skopos of the TLT.

These are the parameters that oblige a translator to adopt a certain methodology. Thus, there are no laws that apply to all translations; rather, translators adopt a variational approach that is defined for each translation according to the functions of the SLT and the purpose of the TLT. It is interesting to compare Tytler's laws with Katerina Reiss's first "text typology," which was also broken down into three main sections. She divided texts according to their main function, and these functions partially coincide with Tytler's laws.

The first is Inhaltsbetonte Texte, in which the predominant function of the language is representative, to transmit the content of the text. The second is Formbetonte Texte, in which the predominant function of the language is expressive, to transmit the form of the text. The third is Appelbetonte Texte, in which the predominant function of the language is to provoke a reaction in the reader, or receptor Reiss, The parallels are quite clear: Tytler refers to ideas, Reiss to content; Tytler to style of writing, Reiss to form; Tytler to ease of original composition, Reiss to the effect on the reader or the receptor.

Reiss later changed her terminology and called the three text types informative, expressive, and operative Reiss, However, in , Reiss stressed the multifunctionality of most texts. The variational approach is needed even within a single translation, because different functions may be dominant at different times. Nevertheless, the definition of text types is one of the most useful directions in translation theory today, and it has direct implications on teaching methodology.

In fact, the twentieth century has been called the "Age of Translation. After the end of the Second World War, the number of translations increased as the number of International organizations, multinationals, and worldwide communication systems increased. The growth in translation theory is also due to developments in related disciplines.

Any translator who tries to get up to date on the latest theories will be faced with a wide range of possibilities. There are three main reasons for this. First, the complexity of the translation process makes it very difficult to fit it into one theory. Third, translation theory is a multidisciplinary study and has itself been studied by many different disciplines from their own special points of view and with their own priorities. Translation theory can learn from the multidisciplinary approach taken by discourse analysis, which was developed to try to deal with problems that could not be solved at the level of word or sentence.

Most translation problems can be solved only at the level of discourse. Like discourse analysis, translation theory has drawn on work from many other disciplines. Going back in time, there is much to be learned from classical grammar, rhetoric, and logic. The painstaking research of the nineteenth-century philologists provided invaluable historical, geographical, and comparative data. Modern linguistics now seems to be moving toward functionalist text linguistics, which may be the most useful approach for translation theory, but there is also much to be learned from the structuralist, formalist approaches.

In fact, one of the most fascinating aspects of translation is that it is a multidisciplinary, interdisciplinary activity, and many of the disciplines involved have been developing very rapidly in recent years. Multidisciplinary cognitive science emerged in the late s, drawing on fields such as psychology psycholinguistics, cognitive psychology , computer science artificial intelligence , sociology sociolinguistics and social psychology , and anthropology. This new integrated science provides valuable tools for the study of language, discourse, and translation as communicative modes of action.

Translation is a perfect field in which to study all these different disciplines in interaction. The process of translation is a linguistic operation, and therefore our knowledge of it is as limited as our knowledge of language, its relation to thought, and how the human brain works. The debate over whether thought is possible without language has been a long one. Advances in neurosurgery and the cognitive sciences seem to have established that, in effect, the brain stores concepts and linguistic labels separately.

The present situation can be compared to that of physics before the advent of Einstein's theory of relativity and quantum mechanics. Certainly, when a theory is produced that establishes the links between brain and mind, it will inevitably be very complex. Perhaps chaos theory and complexity theory will also be able to contribute to translation theory.

It is to be hoped that future translation theorists will have a more solid basis to work on, but in the meantime, translation teachers cannot ignore the advances that have been made. Roger Bell makes a valiant attempt to bring all of these developments together in a model that he hopes will be of service to translators, linguists, and translation theory. He makes use of what is known as the computational metaphor, in which the structure of the human mind, the cognitive architecture built on the physical foundations of brain and nervous system, is described in terms of a powerful computer, in the sense that both minds and computers process information Vide et al.

Bell believes that, despite all the advances in the disciplines related to translation, there is a fundamental misunderstanding by both translation theorists and linguists of what is involved in translation and that "the co-occurrence of exciting advances in cognitive science, artificial intelligence and 8. Bell's purpose is to stimulate translation theorists and linguists to work together, drawing on each other's fields. However, translation theory still has not found its Einstein, and when an "adequate theory of translation" does emerge, it will have to account for innumerable variations and new forms of translation that emerge as technology develops for example, TV dubbing.

Some translation theorists feel that the task of developing an adequate theory of translation is so far beyond our grasp that translation theory would be better occupied dealing with concrete problems. This is Peter Newmark's position, which is completely opposed to Bell's: Translation theory broadly consists of, and can be defined as, a large number of generalisations of translation problems.

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For a long time, he was the only well-known scholar in Britain writing about translation. Nevertheless, he mistrusts attempts to make a "science" of translation. In fact, translation is a hybrid, and there is an element of "science" involved. A model can help us to gain an over-all view of the subject. The process of developing a translation theory is like the process of analyzing discourse.

It should be a two-way process, with bottom-up top-down, microstructural macrostructural interaction. The intellectual isolation that affected the United Kingdom and the United States and Spain at the beginning of the twentieth century and the anti-theoretical approach to literary criticism also affected translation theory Bassnet-McGuire, In the last four or five years, the trend has changed dramatically, as can be seen in the Routledge Interface series9 and in Longman's Applied Linguistics an Language Study series. The main interest in translation theory in this book is to define a methodology to help students to learn a skill: This series was established in the s, but it has only recently turned its attention to translation studies.

Translating is such a complex skill that if translators know more about the process, they will perform better. How much they need to know about the process depends on a number of factors. Translation teachers have to define how much translation theory their students need. Bell uses the term "threshold of termination" to describe how much time should be spent at each point of the translation process. Here, "threshold of termination" is used to describe just how much translation theory trainee translators need to be taught as a framework to improve their translation skills without transforming the translation class into a translation theory class.

There has been considerable fragmentation in translation studies, and this can be a problem in translation faculties in which many languages are taught. Many of the teachers will have been trained within different national schools of theory: This means that students may have to cope with three or four different theoretical models, which can be an enriching, but confusing, experience. The choice of a model is in part simplified by the constraints of teaching translation into the foreign language. Who wrote the text, when, why, where, how, for whom, and who is going to read the translation, when, why, where, how?

Translation teachers have to ask the same questions about their class—that is, put their teaching into context before deciding which theoretical approach to use. He defines communicative translation as an attempt to produce the same effect on the reader of the translation as that made on the reader of the original Tytler's third law. Semantic translation attempts to render the exact contextual meaning of the original, within the limits allowed by the semantic and syntactic structures of the second language Tytler's first law.

A semantic translation may require more effort on the part of the reader. It tends to overtranslate, rather than simplify. Newmark claims that the increasing assumption that all translation problems are communication problems is dangerous: He believes that their approach leads to undertranslation and loss of meaning. Seleskovitch's interpretive theory of translation is based on the sense behind the words. For the Paris School, translation, being a part of a general theory of discourse, has to start with discourse.

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Therefore, for Widdowson the study of discourse is the study of pragmatics—the purpose for which a sentence is used—of the real-world conditions under which a sentence may appropriately be used as an utterance. The distinction between semantic and pragmatic meaning is behind the theory of speech acts originally developed by Austin and Searle For the purposes of teaching translation into a foreign language, the communicative theories are the most useful. Jean Delisle, who studied with Seleskovitch and teaches translation at the University of Ottawa, led the field in applying theories related to discourse analysis to the teaching of translation: First, Delisle restricts his method to what he calis pragmatic texts, which excludes texts in which Reiss's expressive function is predominant.

Professionally, these students will always be translating texts in which the pragmatic function dominates. Second, Delisle's translation unit is the entire text seen as discourse. In the inversa class the students are complete beginners, and their main problem is to get beyond the lexical level. They have to be trained to understand the text as a whole and reach the sense behind the words. Third, the approach is based on communicative theories, and therefore leads to communicative situations in the classroom that encourage motivation. Delisle is useful because he is concerned primarily with teaching translation, not linguistics; the translation theory is often implicit, rather than explicit; and the learning is inductive rather than deductive.

Furthermore, developments in related disciplines in recent years seem to reinforce the idea that translation problems are communication problems. They have been associated with the image of actors in jeans playing Shakespeare and the idea that depth, quality, and poetry should be sacrificed to "information. Gutt reinforces the communicative position in translation by expanding the concept of a communicative translation: Gutt is not just a linguist writing about translation in a vacuum. He is a translator who taught translation at the University of Addis Ababa.

His book is full of translation examples; it is not the uninterrupted theorizing to which Newmark understandably objects. The relevance-theory concept of communication that he applies to translation is much wider than that allowed by Newmark, who equates communication with generalization and simplification: The more communication, the more generalisation; the more simplification, the iess meaning. I am writing against the increasing assumption that all translation is [nothing but] communicating, where the Iess effort expected of the reader, the better.

Gutt gives an excellent example of how a translation that would have been categorized as "direct versus indirect" Vinay and Darbelnet, , "formal versus dynamic" Nida, , "literal versus free" Catford, , or "semantic versus communicative" Newmark, was, in fact, more successful communicatively than one that was ostensibly indirect, dynamic, free, communicative. The draft was communicative in Newmark's sense of the word—that is, generalizing, simplifying, and explicative.

After a year's testing, the church decided that virtually everything had to be translated again: Much implicit information that had been made explicit in the text was relegated to a footnote, a picture, the glossary or eliminated altogether.

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This mismatch in expectations led to a breakdown in communication. I have always considered that the main purpose of translating these scientific papers is for the scientists to transmit the information related to their research as clearly as possible to an international audience, for the greater glory of science, the advancement of their own careers, and the prestige of their home institutions. As a result, when translating these papers, I follow the discourse model of English-language scientific papers as published in most prestigious international journals.

One of the rules of style that Spanish students are taught is On skopos, see Vermeer, ; Reiss and Vermeer, ; Nord, In the English translation, I shorten sentences and clear up references for example, doing away with synonyms for "test tube" , bearing in mind that the mode of the TLT is "written to be read aloud" by someone whose English may not be fluent, to an audience composed of native and non-native speakers of English.

On the whole, my clients are satisfied. However, when I produced this kind of translation for a social scientist, he was most annoyed. Apparently, in his particular branch of this discipline, there are a group of academics in Spain, France, and Italy who defend the style of the Romance languages against the imperialism of English, even though they are obliged to present their papers in English if they want international recognition.

There may be another reason. Relevance theory provides a very satisfying explanation of the peculiar strength of poetic language, as opposed to prose: This reduction of poetic effect can be seen in the Good News Bible and Dios habla al hombre. The semantic relations between the different constituents of the sentence are defined by syntax. The passage is 1 Corinthians And though I have the gift of prophecy and understand all mysteries, and all knowledge, and though I have all faith, so that I could move mountains, and have not charity, I am nothing.

I may be able to speak the languages of men and even of angels, but if I have no love, my speech is no more than a noisy gong or a clashing bell. I may have the gift of inspired preaching, I may have all knowledge and understand all secrets; I may have all the faith needed to move mountains—but if I have no love, I am nothing. Si comunico mensajes recibidos de Dios, y conozco todas las cosas secretas, y tengo toda clase de conocimientos, y tengo toda la fe necesaria para quitar los montes de su lugar, pero no tengo amor, no soy nada.

The most obvious, immediate difference is the length of the four versions. The versions are more explicit syntactically and lexically. Gutt also shows how rhyme and rhythm contribute to the poetic effect by imposing phonological patterns that are independent of syntactic structure and often cut right across it: Although the inversa class will be concerned mainly with translating Delisle's "pragmatic" texts, nearly all texts are multifunctional, and even the most pragmatic texts may have "poetic" elements.

Whatever their view of translation, translators are communicators addressing the TL audience. Gutt's theory is less useful when he discusses "translation where all is change" , ch. Relevance theory divides language use as communication into two categories: All "real" translations are examples of interpretive use of language.

The first is a translation of the advertisement for the purpose of students studying the marketing strategy of Viyella House, so it must be strongly oriented to the SLT, in both form and content. The second is the creation of a corresponding advertisement for Germany.

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Gutt maintains that the second is not a translation. There is some truth in what Gutt says, but when discussing translation everywhere else he is very careful to avoid diametrically opposed categories. It is impossible to find a text or translation in which only one function is important. Text categories are always referred to within a spectrum, in which functions are stronger or weaker. Nord develops a theoretical model intended to cover all kinds of translation situations.

If the skopos demands a change of function, the required function of the translation will not be fidelity to the SLT but adequacy with regard to the skopos: Examples of skopos may be very varied: Nord goes so far as to say, "Functional equivalence between source and target text is not the 'normal' skopos of a translation, but an exceptional case in which the factor 'change of function' is assigned zero" This is, perhaps, an exaggeration if all institutional and instructional translations are taken into account.

However, professional translators do have to provide more than the layperson imagines by a translation. Gutt's quotation from a translation-agency ad, found on the back cover of Language Monthly Aug. More than a translation service. We understand your environment and we offer very much more than a translation service. This is an interesting example: Discussing these factors with the co-ordinator of the program before starting work on the translation is providing a translation service.

This is one of the lessons that a trainee translator must learn. Semiotics, too, is best defined within a general theory of communication, and the semiotic notion of intertextuality can be usefully applied to translation theory. The idea that translation is semiotics is not a new one. In , BassnettMcGuire suggested that translation can best be explained using semiotics: While they present convincing evidence of the highly diverse nature of translation, they stress the need for an over-all model of the translation process based on a functional approach as suggested by Kelly: Translators make lexical and syntactic choices that are conditioned by the pragmatic action of a discourse, the purposes of utterances, and real-world conditions.

The differences between Spain and Britain are not so great, and these differences have diminished over the last twenty years, due to economic, political, and cultural changes in Spain and the fact that both countries belong to the European Community. However, recent changes related to the end of the Cold War make it increasingly difficult to capture the ideological position of text producers and to predict their intentions.

However, as later authors Gumperz, ; Stubbs, have pointed out, semiotics transcends the study of language. Charles Pierce's semiotic analysis started with nonlinguistic signs and then identified the status of language in semiotic systems. This is not a book about semiotics, and his categories have been simplified for pedagogical reasons. Pierce breaks the sign down into three parts: To illustrate these parts of the sign, we could consider a nonlinguistic sign. There were no words on the advertisement, except for the Government Health Warning about smoking" Lodge, If we analyze this sign in terms of Pierce's three categories, the results could be: However, in the Silk Cut advertisement being analyzed, the sign has assumed wider meanings and connotations.

These connotations are sexual: The sign, as understood by Pierce and others Barthes, ; Eco, , has an endless capacity to transform and take on other meanings and connotations. The sign achieves significance through intertextuality. Texts are processed not by empty brains, but by minds already stocked with set ideas, a priori categories, prototypes, and, perhaps most importantly, agenda.

In other words, text processing is usually ideologically determined. Each individual brain has its own set of categories, determined by interaction between the dominant discourse of a society and the different systems that make up a culture. Intertextual elements identify a given text as belonging to a particular cultural system.

Therefore, the translator has to identify, first, the form of an intertextual reference and, second, its function. Third, the translator has to determine the semiotic status of the reference in order to decide whether to give priority to form or to function. In Nice Work, Vic Wilcox finds that some of Robyn's theoretical explanations help him to understand the world around him. Trainee translators can also profit from such explanations.

The SLT is in the students' native language, and emphasis can be put on the first stage in the translation process: It is a natural contextual situation in which to expand extralinguistic knowledge, an important part of training translators. However, we may also do well to recognize the limitations of theory.

As de Beaugrande warns, "It is inappropriate to expect that a theoretical model of translation should solve all the problems a translator encounters. Furthermore, the more idealized the theory and the data, the farther away they are from the real world and its "fuzzy" outlines. Translation is an activity anchored in the real world. Perhaps Hewson and Martin are right: The next section deals with this. This second part is about translating the process, the activity. This section takes a descriptive approach to the process of translating, because only by understanding the process can a practical teaching methodology be evolved.

Indeed, for some writers the whole purpose of translation theory is "to reach an understanding of the processes undertaken in the act of translation and, not, as is so commonly misunderstood, to provide a set of norms for effecting the perfect translation" Bassnett-McGuire, This seems simpler than it is. How can we understand or describe a process that takes place inside the translator's head?

Do we have any data that are not the finished translation i. Few translators can do more than describe the physical process: They know that something complicated is going on in their heads, but they find it difficult to verbalize. Some insights into the process have been gained by observing interpreters at work. Jean Delisle , at the University of Ottawa, went further and applied this theory to teaching translation of pragmatic texts defined as those in which the informative function outweighs the expressive function.

The ESIT approach fulfils three of the four basic requirements of any theoretical model: Delisle applies the theory only to pragmatic texts. Newmark has fulminated against the assumption implicit in the ESIT approach that all translation is nothing but communication. However, as was suggested in the previous chapter, Gutt's application of relevance theory to translation may solve this problem by expanding the notion of a communicative translation and thus doing away with the dichotomy between communicative and semantic, dynamic and formal, and so on.

Bell has also written about the translation process, drawing from many different disciplines within the cognitive sciences—artificial intelligence, computer science, psychology, logic, and so on—to do so. Bell's findings do not conflict with those of the Paris School; rather, they seem to confirm them.

Seleskovitch and Lederer concluded from their experience as interpreters and teachers of interpreting that between the stages of listening comprehension and speaking reformulation , there is a stage of deverbalization. In consecutive interpreting, the speaker breaks his or her SL discourse into fragments which may be as much as ten minutes in length. At the end of each pause, the interpreter summarizes the contents of the speech in the TL, basing his or her discourse on the notes that he or she has taken.

Considerable developments have been made in taking notes for this purpose. Seleskovitch analyzed interpreters' reformulations and concluded that they were produced in function not of the words that had been said but of a deverbalized message. Note taking in consecutive interpreting gives us some clues to the interaction between cognitive and verbal contexts and clearly suggests that the message is deverbalized: As Seleskovitch has pointed out, memory and understanding are inseparable; one is a function of the other.

What we store in our long-term memory is semantic information or the mnemonic trace of the verbal message. Experiments in cognitive psychology suggest that our verbal memory is very ephemeral; we tend to store concepts rather than words. In "click" experiments, the subject is asked to remember a list of utterances read aloud and interrupted at intervals by a sound.

These experiments show that if the "click" is put at the end of a sense unit rather than in the middle, the subject is much more likely to remember the utterances. Simultaneous interpreting in its present form has been possible only since the Second World War, because it depends on electronic equipment that allows the interpreter to be in a soundproof booth, hear the SL speaker through a pair of headphones, and without a pause reformulate the message in the TL. The process is much more transparent than that in consecutive interpreting or in other forms of translation. All of the elements of the communicative situation are present synchronically in the same room: Modern booths are fitted with glass so that the interpreters can see the speaker and be seen themselves.

Interpreters can work at a speed that would not be possible if they were interpreting words about words per minute rather than units of meaning. If they concentrated on the words, their speech would be awkward, slow, opaque; however, they retain not the words but le sens, or the deverbalized meaning, which is defined in the ESIT theory as a cognitive memory.

Barbizet, to support the theory of deverbalization. Research into accidents and strokes affecting the brain in different ways—such as loss of speech but retention of reasoning, or loss of complex reasoning but retention of words—suggests the existence of two types of memory: It seems that linguistic competence and cognitive competence are situated in different parts of the brain and that both are needed to understand a locution.

Not everyone can develop this skill to the same extent, but in a recording of a good professional it is possible to follow the two stages at the same time. Memory also has an important role to play in understanding, and it is important to distinguish between short-term and long-term memory. Adults can retain seven to eight words for two to three seconds. Both intervene in an act of communication that has been interrupted due to differences between the codes used by the transmitter and the receiver.

However, the interpreter participates in the same communicative context both physically and temporally, whereas the translator is separated from the transmitter and the receiver by both time and space. In translating, as in simultaneous interpreting, there are three main stages understanding, deverbalization, and reformulation , but simultaneous interpreting is an oral activity.

It takes place at the speed of normal speech, all the elements of the situation of the SL discourse are present, transmission and reception are synchronized, the words disappear leaving no trace, intonation and gestures are taken into account.


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Translating is bound to the mechanisms of reading and writing and takes on the characteristics of texts. Furthermore, the very solidity of the written word tempts the translator to stay with the words rather than the sense. Eugene Nida gave the example of a blind Navajo who was an excellent Bible translator.

He was a skilled Braille reader, but he did his best work when someone read out a verse to him and he translated orally. When he was allowed to have his fingers on his Braille Bible, the quality of the translation suffered considerably Nida, Viewers, expecting black magic at the very least, must have been disappointed by the appearance of a normally naughty boy, a "holy terror.

Because the writer and the translator do not share the same communicative situation, the translator can work at his or her own rhythm, unless he or she has a deadline to meet. The written text is permanent and outlives the first communicative situation; each reading takes place in a new communicative situation. Therefore, much that is implicit in an oral discourse, through situation, intonation, or gestures, has to be made explicit in a written text.

The coherence of written discourse has to be more obvious, thoughtful, and organized. The writer must know the conventions of the written language graphic, lexical, grammatical, and textual ; he or she has time to think of alternative forms of expression. The translator has to be an expert reader, capable of activating his or her extralinguistic cognitive memory to interact with and make sense of the text. The interpreter deverbalizes on reception of the message.

We do not understand a text when we remember all of the words but when we have made an effort of synthesis, a mental process of understanding that is not verbal. A good translator is not necessarily a good interpreter; he or she may not have a good auditive memory or possess the reflexes necessary to make a rapid synthesis. We attempt to understand these phenomena inductively and deductively. In the case of trying to understand the phenomenon of translation, we can start with the end product, a translation, and work backwards inductively to understand the process of translating.

At the same time, we can work deductively from what we know about how our minds work experience when translating the process to reach an understanding of a translation. Work in educational psychology suggests that we are most efficient when we combine both the inductive and deductive methods. From this hypothesis, we can then work back inductively to see if there is evidence in the process of translation that, in fact, the clause is the unit of translation. This evidence can be found in the experiments quoted by Bell Jacobvits, , cited in Bell, Therefore, in reading a passage such as 'The United Nations Secretary General reported substantial progress in the peace negotiations in Geneva today," the cognitive "chunks," or units of meaning, would probably be: The gradual building-up of composite meaning is known in the field of artificial intelligence as top-down and bottom-up processing.

Bell provides a chart for what he calis the cycle of inquiry, which is followed to reach an Understanding of the simplest natural phenomenon. We should bear it in mind when considering how to understand discourse, the translation process, and the learning process. When we perceive a phenomenon, we can attempt to understand it in two ways: This is the stage of verification at which the translator returns to the original text to check if he or she has really transmitted the sense of the original—what Newmark calis back-translation. The model provided by Bell for the translation process derives from work in psycholinguistics and artificial intelligence.

Instead of comprehension and reformulation, he refers to analysis and synthesis. He also incorporates elements of discourse analysis, so he includes the concepts of field, mode, and tenor. It is an essential element in any professional situation and should also be an essential element in the classroom. If the teacher does not define the purpose of the translation, by default the purpose will be to please the teacher. Language teachers now try to avoid giving colourless, purposeless assignments of the type "My Summer Holidays," or "Autumn. The constraints of the orders given by bishops and popes helped to produce the masterpieces of Michelangelo and Leonardo.

Translation students need to be told why they are translating a text; they need to be given a skopos. The context of the translation is an essential element of the translation process. The model proposed here see figure 6. A flow chart has not been attempted within each stage, as the process is not linear but bottom-up, top-down, and at each stage there is interaction between macro- and microstructures. The difference is only in the time and effort needed at each stage.

Depending on the amount of knowledge in the translator's syntactic, semantic, pragmatic, and semiotic memory, more or less time and effort will be required in comprehension or reformulation, analysis or synthesis. The Oxford English Dictionary gives the origin of the word text as the Latin, texere: A written text is constructed according to a pattern obviously, some are better constructed than others. The words and sentences that make up the text are woven into the web of the text.

In certain texts, a skilled reader is needed to grasp the whole pattern. The metaphor of text as web is an ancient one. Another possible metaphor is a text as a skeleton. Following this metaphor, discourse is a skeleton plus blood, flesh, and guts ideology, emotions, and soul. Linguistics can provide the tools to analyze texts, but other disciplines are required to analyze discourse. Furthermore, many authors do not maintain this distinction and refer to text as written discourse.

As mentioned above, translation studies have been influenced by developments in related disciplines. One of the most important developments in twentieth-century literary studies has been the re-evaluation of the reader, who is envisaged as taking an active rather than a passive role. For Roland Barthes , the reader is not a consumer of texts but a producer.

As a product of the au,thor's intentio, the text remains provisional until it is received by its reader; in other words, the text as a communicative act is completed by the recipient Nord, This concept is useful, but only up to a point. There is hardly any reason to teach translators to improve their reading skills if there is no agreement over what constitutes a correct reading. Intertextuality is one of these relevant text features, the importance of which has been emphasized in the work of poststructuralist literary critics.

Laurence Venuti's Rethinking Translation, a collection of essays on literary translations as creations, is concerned with raising the status of the translator, using the arguments of twentieth-century literary criticism Venuti, The translator, Josep Ma. Boix i Selva, was concerned with reproducing the form and function of Milton's poem as faithfully as possible. However, the translation was published just after the Spanish Civil War, and one of the purposes of the translation was to defend the Spanish republican cause, just as Milton had defended the English republic.

The introduction to the translation was carefully designed to convince Franco's censors that the poem was harmless by denying Milton's republican, Protestant views. Fortunately, the censor read only the introduction, and so the poem was published. For skilled readers who progressed beyond the introduction, intertextuality made the translator's political implications clear.

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He claimed that only Muslim students could make sense of Paradise Lost because they knew about heaven and hell from reading the Koran. The other students had little or no knowledge of the Bible, and so they found Paradise Lost meaningless. Trainee translators need to develop their translatororiented reader expertise in their mother tongue. Problems of meaning in the translation are just as likely to arise from misunderstanding the SLT as from insufficient competence in the TL. Any reader, or translator, has to possess linguistic competence in the SL.

Linguistic competence syntactic and semantic is obviously essential, but in isolation it is not sufficient. In order to understand a word, a phrase, or a text, we need to draw on our pragmatic knowledge of the situational, verbal, cognitive, and general socio-historical contexts. This is one of the most important lessons that students learn in the prose-translation class. They assume that because they have nativespeaker competence in Spanish, all their problems will arise in the reformulation stage.

They sometimes make mistakes in meaning due to insufficient knowledge of their own language and ignorance of the context and intertextuality of the SLT. The mistakes made by Spanish students translating the following text were due to weak reading skills. In other cases, they either had not read enough newspaper articles of this type to grasp the intertextuality or did not draw on their stored knowledge. Era casi lo peor. The journalist was reporting on the assassination of two French engineers in Casablanca. Most of them recognized it as an idomatic expression and found suitable solutions: The situational context comprises all elements of the situation in which the discourse was transmitted or the speech act took place: The verbal context comprises all the words in the text and how they are grouped.

The verbal context gives us the clues necessary to work through the polysemy of words in order to find the right meaning. The cognitive context comprises all of the information gathered from the text during the reading. The article begins with the journalist recounting his son's experiences going to the American school in Rabat and how the Moroccan children jeered at the American school bus. Abdelkadar went the whole hog a few weeks after a crowd attacked a group of European tourists in a luxury hotel in Fez on December The tourists were threatened, robbed, and even had their faces mbbed with onions!

Unpleasant as it must have been, there was obviously a qualitative difference between this and the assassination. The general socio-historical context comprises all the events, codes, and social relationships necessary for understanding the text. Although this article is written in a rather amusing, ironic tone, it expresses serious concern for the safety of Spaniards living in Morocco, which is comprehensible only in the context of the fundamentalists' reaction against the "allies" of the United States during the Gulf War.

When readers process a text successfully, all of their extralinguistic knowledge of context is activated. This activation is still beyond the scope of computers. Therefore, machine translation is effective only with texts that keep within a very limited and controlled context. However, I do regard machine-translation programs with greater respect after a little experiment that took place just before the outbreak of the Gulf War. We were trying out a new translation program, and a colleague typed out a sentence that was very much in our minds at that time: Bush is going to start the Third World War.

The translator has to take into account a new communicative situation: Malinowski , first worked out his theory of context to solve a translation problem: He studied their culture through texts oral tradition, narration of ceremonies, fishing expeditions, and so on. The distance between their culture and the Englishspeaking world before the Second World War was immense.

This was before the advent of modern communication techniques and the mass media. If he had opted for a free, reader-oriented translation, the texts would have been intelligible but would not have provided information about the SL culture, which was the purpose of his research. A literal, text-oriented translation would have preserved the original at the price of making it totally unintelligible to the English reader. His solution was a translation with commentary to situationalize the text by relating it to its verbal and nonverbal environment.

He included every possible aspect of the culture surrounding the production and reception of the text and called it the context of situation. The distance separating Spanish from English at the end of the twentieth century is not nearly so great: A commentated translation is rarely needed, except in the case of some historical documents or "sacred" texts. Nevertheless, the translator can never forget the context of situation. Today, under the influence of Malinowski and many others, "description of communicative events is now fairly widely recognized as the proper goal of linguistic analysis.

Much of the absence. In Spain, for example, the demand for English classes makes the sale of textbooks big business. All of the English-language textbooks in the shops at the moment are based on communicative, functional notions. Nearly all students at the university level have learned English using this type of textbook. What would you say? You try to persuade him not to.

Field of discourseu should not be confused with subject matter or topic. Political discourse is one field, but the subject matter of political discourse may be, for instance, defence, sovereignty, pensions, taxes, or education. Different languages develop different fields of discourse in different ways. For example, the scientific discourse of English is very marked. This may lead to problems of the sort commented on in the previous chapter when translating academic texts from Spanish to English.

Gregory and Carrol If the President of the United States addresses the United Nations, his field of discourse will be political and the mode will be a text written to be read as speech. His speechwriters will have to take into account the channels through which this speech will reach different audiences: The differences that we have established between interpreters and translators are largely questions of mode.

Subtitling is restricted by questions of space on the screen and may have to reproduce aspects of speech such as the slurred speech of a drunkard. Dubbing into the foreign language is not really a viable professional option for prose translators. However, it is certainly a valuable learning activity for the insights it gives to mode switching and deverbalization.

Tenor of discourse reflects the relationship between speaker and audience, writer and reader. Traditionally, this has been described as a continuum from frozen to intimate. Formality signals a more distant relationship between writer and reader. The greater care given to the structuring of the message also shows the degree of "importance" of the text.

Formality is expressed in different ways. English is particularly rich in lexical alternatives due to the historical development of the language. The lexical alternative of Greek, Latin, or French origin is frequently used when a more formal tenor is required, and that of Germanic origin is used in more informal situations.

Formality is also marked syntactically. One technique in English is pre-modification, or left-branching. This is a technique that Spanish students recognize as very English; they use it correctly in formal texts but they do not recognize it as a formal marker and tend to overuse it in less formal texts. In the first text below, which is about international relations, it is acceptable, but in the second, which is a more "literary" article about the homeless in New York collecting tins for cash, it is not. Translation student Y 2. Nueva York, el mayor basurero del mundo Esto es el sonido de los mendigos de fin de siglo.

Duermen, como Walter, en frente de tiendas abiertas las 24 horas. Like Walter, they sleep in front of 24 hour open shops. Politeness reflects the social distance between the writer and the reader. There are two main dimensions: Spanish has many ways of expressing politeness, but the most obvious is the address system usted versus tu. The use of usted in Spain is changing. During the democratic transition, it was much less common. Today it is used more frequently in certain formal situations, but other uses seem to have died out.

For example, children do not address their parents as usted. Spanish visitors to England are often surprised by the frequency with which they hear "Excuse me" and "Sorry," and they find the commonly used polite request forms amusing for example, "Would you mind opening the window? Impersonality refers to whether the writer's or reader's presence is made explicit in the text or whether the first- or second-person is used. Typical examples can be found in academic, bureaucratic, and legal texts for example, "it" as subject, passive constructions, abstract nouns.

Impersonality is highly valued in Spanish formal writing. Accessibility reflects the assumptions that the writer has made about the extent to which the reader shares his or her knowledge of the universe of the discourse. If a physicist is writing for other physicists, there are certain basic laws implicit in the text, and he or she can use the specific terminology of the field. This text would be inaccessible to the general public. If the physicist is writing for a newspaper, he or she will have to resort to explicature for readers who do not share his or her knowledge of concepts, methodology, and terminology.


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The translator has to consider how TLT readers differ from the readers of the SLT and whether elements that are implicit in the original have to be made explicit. Field, mode, and tenor refer to variation in language use. The translator also has to take dialectal—geographical, temporal, social, non- standard, idiolect—variations into account.

All of these variables, which may be expressed in macrostructures or microstructures, are interdependent. Together they help us to define14 and identify registers. A certain level of formality tenor influences and is influenced by a particular level of technicality field in an appropriate channel of communication mode.

The next chapter looks at a translation text and how all of the previously mentioned factors intervene—how the translation process is never lineal but always cascaded—and how they are all interrelated and interdependent. There is ampie evidence of this interdependence in human action and language. This interdependence or interaction is also basic to recent work in semantics, narrative theory, rhetoric, psycholinguistics, sociolinguistics, cognitive psychology and pragmatics, action theory, philosophy of language, the theory of speech acts, and the social sciences.

The same trend can be seen in modern physics. Fritjof Capra, author of The Tao of Physics, wrote that in subatomic particles "every particle consists of all other particles. These particles do not "contain" one another, but "involve" one another. Several theories Chew's S-matrix theory and Bohm's Holomovement recognize that consciousness may well be an essential aspect of the universe that will have to be included in future theory of physical phenomena Capra, In the field of human language, it is clear not only that the meaning of the macrostructure depends on the meanings of the microstructures, but that the meanings of the microstructures are determined by the constraints and global meaning of the macrostructure.

Any translator worth his or her salt knows this intuitively, and intuitively makes the adjustments required by the global constraints and meaning of the text and context. Nevertheless, it is instructive at least once during an introductory translation course to make a systematic attempt to identify all of these global constraints, from the point of view of both the teacher and the student.

Of course, these criteria have to be worked out systematically, and even mathematically, so as to give a mark out of 10 for a translation, as is required by the educational system. However, marks are not always given for a translation by adding up half-points or decimals. If a few translations are marked using the criteria systematically and then a more intuitive marking system is used, the results are very similar. This is usually true even when two different teachers correct the same text, one adding up the marks mathematically and the other giving a global grade.

For this to be possible, it is necessary to have passed through the analytical stage. For the students, it is also another stage in consciousness raising—consciousness of the problems of translation and of what the teachers are looking for when they correct a translation which should be very similar to what a translation supervisor or reviser is looking for.

In this chapter, I make a systematic attempt to apply semantic and pragmatic analyses to a Spanish text and to show how the semantic and pragmatic macrostructural constraints influence the morphosyntactic and lexical microstructures. The influence of the cognitive context on the verbal context—that is, how we understand units of meaning—is confirmed by the interpreting process, in particular by note-taking in consecutive interpreting. This macrostructure allows us to understand a text, organize the information in our memory, and retrieve details if they are needed. This theory is still incomplete.

Formal or logical semantics based on artificial languages such as mathematics and logic is complicated enough, but any semantic theory based on natural language is far more complex. Semantically speaking, "The meaning of a sequence of propositions is far more than the sum of propositions underlying the sequence. The meaning of sequence as a whole hierarchically orders the respective meaning of its sentences" van Dijk, The infinite number of combinations that may make up the context or frame of a sequence of speech acts means that any pragmatic theory has to account not only for the known world but for any possible or imaginary world.

In both producing and understanding language, there is intentional control of lower elements by higher elements, and it is important to distinguish between grammatical laws and cognitive or pragmatic constraints. Our understanding of speech depends on the verbal and cognitive contexts. Children often misunderstand adult language for this reason and interpret unfamiliar words and syntax as familiar ones. Therefore, instead of singing the traditional Christmas carol as it was written, "We three kings of Orient are," they may sing, "We three kings of orange and tar.

My ignorance of "the Nigerian context" impeded the formulation of a satisfactory macrostructure that would allow me to understand the book, even though Soyinka writes in English and his syntax and vocabulary are simpler than those of Joyce in Ulysses.

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This is confirmed by what we know about the process of interpreting. The larger the unit, the better our understanding. A text is lineal only when it is being used for certain functions, such as dictation. Children learn to read letter by letter, then word by word, and then progress to reading with meaning. Translation students, particularly when they are translating into the foreign language, tend to return to infancy and get stuck at the level of the word. This is one reason that pre-translation contextual exercises are so important in training translators.

This macrostructure allows us to understand a text, organize the information in our memory, and retrieve details when we need them. Cognitive experiments prove how easy it is to remember the details of a story but not a list of unconnected sentences.


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The job of the translation teacher can be seen as consciousness raising, making students aware of elements that we do not normally notice when we read and write. Consciousness of text type is a very valuable skill for trainee translators to develop: Establishing criteria to distinguish systematically between different types of discourse is not easy.

Journal of Zoological Systematics and Evolutionary Research 48 4: Domestication of guinea pigs from a southern Peru-northern Chile wild species and their middle pre-Columbian mummies. Honoring the Life and Legacy of Oliver P. University of California Publications in Zoology Consultado el 12 de marzo de World Prehistory and Archaeology: The Spirit of Ancient Peru: Animal use at the Tibes Ceremonial Center. People, power, and ritual at the center of the cosmos. Conrad Gessner's "Historia Animalum": An Inventory of Renaissance Zoology.

Oxford English Dictionary online subscription access required. Consultado el 25 de abril de Consultado el 29 de agosto de Guinness Book of World Records. Guinness World Records Ltd. En Wilson, Don E. Canadian Federation of Humane Societies. Consultado el 21 de marzo de The Biology and Medicine of Rabbits and Rodents. African minor livestock species.