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- Tectonics and Metallogeny of East Kazakhstan
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- Ore Exploration
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As continents become explored more thoroughly, the chances of discovering ore mineral deposits by direct observation decrease.
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The present land surface, however, presents only a two-dimensional sample of the geology of the Earth's crust; this sample is reduced even more by obscuring layers of soil, vegetation, and water. Because it is feasible to exploit some ore deposits that are obscured by as Skip to main content Skip to table of contents. General Geology Edition. Contents Search. Exploration geochemistry. Authors Authors and affiliations A. How to cite. Motive As continents become explored more thoroughly, the chances of discovering ore mineral deposits by direct observation decrease.
Tectonics and Metallogeny of East Kazakhstan
This is a preview of subscription content, log in to check access. Brundin, N. Nairis, , Alternative sample types in regional geochemical prospecting, J. Exploration 1, 7— CrossRef Google Scholar.
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Govett, G. Amsterdam: Elsevier, p. Google Scholar. This paper provides an overview of recent progress on mechanisms of metal dispersion from the buried ore deposits through the transported cover to the surface and penetrating geochemical methods to detect the anomalies. Fine-fraction sampling, selective-leaching and overburden drilling geochemical methods can effectively indicate the gold ore body at Jinwozi goldfield.
In laterite-covered terrains, the anomalies determined by the fine-fraction soils and selective leaching of absorbed metals on coatings of Fe—Mn oxides coincide well with the concealed deposit over the Yueyang ore deposits at the Zijin Au—Cu—Ag field. The findings imply that nanoparticles of gold and copper may migrate through the transported cover to the surface.
The uranyl ions are absorbed on clay minerals, because clay layers have a net negative charge, which needs to be balanced by interlayer cations. Nanoparticles of Au and Cu and ion complexes of U are more readily absorbed onto fine fractions of soils containing clays, colloids, oxides and organic matters. Thus, fine-grained soils enriched with clays, oxides and colloids are useful media for regional geochemical surveys in regolith-covered terrains and in sedimentary basins. Fine-fraction soil sampling combined with selective leaching geochemistry is effective for finding concealed ore bodies in detailed surveys.
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Penetrating geochemistry at surface sampling provides cost-effective mineral exploration methods for delineation of regional and local targets in transported cover terrains. Above saprolite the regolith stratigraphy has been established considering two distinct domains. One composed of residual materials and the other transported materials deposited over palaeochannels. In the residual domain the ferruginous saprolite grades upwards into a fragmental duricrust, interpreted as a collapsed zone, and then into different types of ferruginous duricrusts.
Over palaeochannel the ferruginous saprolite is truncated by poorly sorted ferruginous sediment of variable composition that grades upwards into the ferruginous duricrusts formed over transported materials.
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Lateritization took place during a marked period that transformed the colluvium of the residual domain, and the transported materials accumulated in the channel depressions, into the ferruginous duricrust units. A later bauxitization event has overprinted all duricrust types but has mostly affected the duricrusts over the palaeochannel forming gibbsitic nodules. Gold shows a depletion trend across the regolith but is enriched in the fragmental duricrust below the ferruginous duricrust from which gold is leached.
Gold is also chemically dispersed laterally into the fragmental duricrust, but lateral Au dispersion in the ferruginous duricrusts of the residual domain is probably also influenced by colluvial transport. The fragmental and ferruginous duricrusts are more leached but the tests performed to estimate the dispersion potential of metals contained in the ferruginous duricrust show that some metals are still significantly anomalous especially Au, Ag and Cu.
However, if ferruginous duricrusts are used as an exploration sample media their environment of formation must be considered.
Metal depletion is generally more advanced in the ferruginous duricrusts developed in the vicinities of palaeochannels as oppose to those developed in residual domain. On the contrary, Au over palaeochannel areas is enriched in the upper bauxitized ferruginous duricrusts and in their gibbsitic nodules as a result of lateral chemical transport that is more widespread than in the colluvium over residual domain. The latosol is highly depleted in most metals due to its transported nature.
However, the nodular fractions of the latosol show the greatest dispersion potential especially for Au, Ag, W, U, Bi and Sn. It can incorporate magnetic nodules that bring a rich suit of metals associated to the magnetic gossans, and non-magnetic nodules, classified as concretion and pisolites, which bring metals enriched or dispersed in the ferruginous duricrusts. Regolith-landform processes and geochemical exploration for base metal deposits in regolith-dominated terrains of the Mt Isa region, northwest Queensland, Australia by Ravi R. The regolith in the Mt Isa region of Queensland consists of a variety of saprolites and duricrusts developed on Proterozoic basement rocks and fresh to weathered Mesozoic, Tertiary and Quaternary cover, all of which has impeded base metals exploration.
A complex weathering and landscape history has produced a landscape of a continuously exposed and exhumed basement rocks that have undergone varying intensities of weathering and partial stripping; b weathered and locally eroded Mesozoic cover sequences and c areas with younger transported cover concealing basement and Mesozoic cover.
Various regolith sample media have been evaluated at a number of prospects and deposits which represent different regolith-landform terrains and landscape history. Geochemical dispersion processes and models are presented and false anomalies explained. Dispersion haloes in truncated profiles on weathered bedrock covered with colluvium are restricted, are limited to tens of metres from subcrop of the source, and contrast to the extensive anomalies in ferruginous duricrust and nodules. Geochemical exploration in covered areas depends on the possible presence of dispersion through the sediments or leakage along faults or fractures, but may be complicated by high metal backgrounds in the sediments themselves.
Some of the most prominent anomalies occur in ferruginous materials and soils representing emergent residual terrain developed on Mesozoic sediments. These are largely due to weathering of sulfide mineralization that continued during submergence in a marine environment, with hydromorphic dispersion into the sediments as they accumulated. Multi-element Cu, As, Zn, Sb, Au anomalies occur in basal sediments and at the unconformity, due to a combination of clastic and hydromorphic dispersion and represent a useful sample target.
Metal-rich horizons in weathered sediments, higher in the sequence, can also be targeted, particularly by specifically sampling ferruginous units and fragments. However, these are less certainly related to mineralization. Zinc and Cu, concentrated in Fe and Mn oxides at redox fronts, may be derived by leaching from the sediments with concentration in the sesquioxides, and be unrelated to any proximal basement mineralization.
In all these regolith-dominated terrains, a clear understanding of local geomorphology, regolith framework, topography of unconformities and the origins of ferruginous materials is essential to sample medium selection and data interpretation. Sea-level changes and buried islands in a complex coastal palaeolandscape in the South of Western Australia: Implications for greenfield mineral exploration by I. Salama; R. Weathering intensity changes due to climatic variability across tectonically stable portions of continental crust can generate a thick and extensive weathered cover, resulting in regolith-dominated terrains RDTs.
Mineral exploration in RDTs is challenging because of the lack of bedrock outcrop, and the difficulty of linking surface regolith geochemistry to the geology at depth. Complex weathering obscures the expression of the basement geochemistry in the regolith, and therefore the footprints of mineral systems are difficult to detect.
Ore Exploration
This study proposes a landscape evolution model of the AFO, driven by transgression—regression sea-level changes that resulted in the formation of numerous islands and development of estuarine zones. This model contrasts with the river system-dominated landscape evolution present in the Yilgarn Craton.
This difference has significant implications for mineral exploration and geochemical interpretation of the regolith in this region. Landscape changes from the topographically high, dissected Yilgarn environment with thick saprolite development and uneven basement topography, to the nearly flat regions dominated by sand dunes and thin saprolite development at the coastline.
These regions are the result of the erosional and depositional effects of successive sea-level transgression—regression cycles. Within this framework, the following four different regolith settings have been identified in a progressive change from Yilgarn Craton environments to the modern coastline: 1 Albany; 2 Kalgoorlie—Norseman; 3 Esperance; and 4 Neale. Mapping the palaeocoastlines, islands and estuarine zones, as well as the region of influence of marine limestones and sediments, can significantly improve the understanding of how surface geochemistry relates to the landscape, and how it links with the geology at depth, and therefore, how it may reflect the presence of mineral systems.
Understanding the difference in the landscape evolution between the AFO and Yilgarn Craton is essential to properly calibrate mineral exploration protocols in both regions. The Albany-Fraser Orogen AFO , southeast Western Australia, is an underexplored, deeply weathered regolith-dominated terrain that has undergone complex weathering associated with various superimposed climatic events. For effective geochemical exploration in the AFO, integrating landscape evolution with mineralogical and geochemical variations of regolith and bedrock provides fundamental understanding of mechanical and hydromorphic dispersion of ore and pathfinder elements associated with the different weathering processes.
From the base, the typical weathering profile consists of saprock, lower ferruginous saprolite, upper kaolinitic saprolite and discontinuous silcrete duricrust or its laterally coeval lateritic residuum. These types of duricrusts change laterally into areas of poorly-cemented kaolinitic grits or loose lateritic pisoliths and nodules. Lateritic residuum probably formed on remnant plateaus and was transported mechanically under arid climatic conditions over short distances, filling valleys to the southeast.
The reworked lateritic materials cover the preserved silcrete duricrusts in valleys.
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The lower ferruginous saprolite and lateritic residuum are well developed over mafic and sulphide-bearing bedrocks, where weathering of ferromagnesian minerals and sulphides led to enrichment of Fe, Cu, Ni, Cr, Co, V and Zn in these units. Kaolinitic saprolite and the overlying pedogenic silcrete are best developed over alkali granites and quartzofeldspathic gneisses, which are barren in Au and transition elements, and enriched in silica, alumina, rare earth and high field strength elements. Therefore, soil cannot be efficiently applied as a reliable sampling medium to target mineralization at the Neale tenement.
Regolith mapping and the distinction between the residual and transported weathering products are extremely significant to follow the distal or proximal mineralization. Display Omitted. A geological assessment of airborne electromagnetics for mineral exploration through deeply weathered profiles in the southeast Yilgarn Cratonic margin, Western Australia by I.
Ley-Cooper; W.