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Table of contents

• Praise / Awards
• Plato’s Aesthetics (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy)
• Aesthetics of love
• Susanne Zepp
• Plato’s Aesthetics

Despite the absence of tracts about beauty and art, aesthetic issues did command the attention of people in the Middle Ages. Whenever poets or philosophers turned their thoughts to the order of the heavens, whenever they delighted in music or art, they contemplated how the pleasure they took in the artistry of the universe was related to the God who created it. For Dante, aesthetics was the discourse of being and could not be narrowly defined.

The aesthetic became the domain in which he considered not only form and proportion, but questions of love, identity, and perfection of the self. Warren Ginsberg expertly guides us through Dante's work. He distinguishes between early texts such as the Vita Nuova , in which the aesthetic offers only a form of knowledge between sensation and reason, and the Comedy , in which the aesthetic is transformed into a language of existence. Among other subjects, Dante's Aesthetics of Being treats poeticism, literary history, language theory, the relation of philosophy to poetry, and of course, aesthetics.

Its readers will include not only experts in Dante and medievalists in general, but literary critics of all periods.

Praise / Awards

Indeed, anyone interested in poetic theory, the philosophy of beauty, or interdisciplinary studies will profit from reading Ginsberg's thoughtful offering. Authors Instructors Media Booksellers Librarians. Quick search: search for products or web pages, depending on options selected below. Today most agree that Plato wrote it, and its sustained inquiry into beauty is seen as central to Platonic aesthetics. The Hippias Major follows Socrates and the Sophist Hippias through a sequence of attempts to define to kalon. Socrates badgers Hippias, in classic Socratic ways, to identify beauty's general nature; Hippias offers three definitions.

Hippias had a reputation for the breadth of his factual knowledge.

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He compiled the first list of Olympic victors, and he might have written something like the first history of philosophy. But his attention to specifics renders him incapable of generalizing to a philosophical definition. After Hippias fails, Socrates tries three definitions. These are general but they fail too, and—again in classic Socratic mode—the dialogue ends unresolved. Although ending in refutation this discussion to e is worth a look as the anticipation of a modern debate. Philosophers of the eighteenth century argue over whether an object is beautiful by virtue of satisfying the definition of the object, or independently of its definition Guyer Such beauty threatens to become a species of the good.

Within the accepted corpus of genuine Platonic works beauty is never subsumed within the good, the appropriate, or the beneficial; Plato seems to belong in the same camp as Kant in this respect. On Platonic beauty and the good see Barney Nevertheless, and of course, he is no simple sensualist about beauty either.

Despite its inconclusiveness the Hippias Major reflects the view of beauty found in other dialogues:. These three aspects of Platonic beauty work together and reflect beauty's unique place in Plato's metaphysics, something almost both visible and intelligible. The Symposium contains Plato's other major analysis of beauty. The three features of beauty in the Hippias Major apply here as well. In the Symposium Socrates claims to be quoting his teacher Diotima on the subject of love, and in the lesson attributed to her she calls beauty the object of every love's yearning.

She spells out the soul's progress toward ever-purer beauty, from one body to all, then through all beautiful souls, laws, and kinds of knowledge, to arrive at beauty itself a—d. Diotima describes the poet's task as the begetting of wisdom and other virtues a. Ultimately moved by desire for what is beautiful the poet produces works of verse. And who would not envy Homer or Hesiod d?

But aside from these passages the Symposium seems prepared to treat anything but a poem as an exemplar of beauty. In a similar spirit the Philebus 's examples of pure sensory beauty exclude pictures 51b—d. The Republic contains several tokens of Plato's reluctance to associate poetry with beauty. The dialogue's first discussion of poetry, whose context is education, censors poems that corrupt the young b—b. Then almost immediately Socrates speaks of cultivating a fondness for beauty among the young guardians.

Their taste for beauty will help them prefer noble deeds over ugly vulgar ones b—d, c. How can Plato have seen the value of beauty to education and not mentioned the subject in his earlier criticisms? Why couldn't this part of the Republic concede that false and pernicious poems affect the young through their beauty? To be sure, the dialogue finds beauty in vase paintings and music; but it takes pains to deny that beauty appears in poetry.

Republic 10 calls the beauty of poetic lines a deceptive attractiveness. Take away the decorative language that makes a poetic sentiment sound right and put it into ordinary words, and it becomes unremarkable, as young people's faces beautified by youth later show themselves as the plain looks they are b. The fundamental datum in understanding Platonic beauty as part of what we would call Plato's aesthetics, or philosophy of art, is that Plato sees no opposition between the pleasures that beauty brings and the goals of philosophy.

Plato mentions no other Form in the Symposium ; beauty is Form enough. Philosophers meet this beauty in an experience in which they consummate their deepest love while also attaining the loftiest knowledge. Many passages in Plato associate a Form with beauty: Cratylus c; Euthydemus a; Laws c; Phaedo 65d, 75d, b; Phaedrus b; Parmenides b; Philebus 15a; Republic b, e, b. Plato mentions beauty as often as he speaks of any property that admits of philosophical conceptualization, and for which a Form therefore exists.

Thanks to the features of Forms as such, we know that this entity being referred to must be something properly called beauty, whose nature can be articulated without recourse to the natures of particular beautiful things. See especially Phaedo 79a and Phaedrus c on properties of this Form. Beauty is Plato's example of a Form so frequently for a pair of reasons.

Susanne Zepp

On one hand it bears every mark of the Forms. It is an evaluative concept as much as justice and courage are, and it suffers from disputes over its meaning as much as they do. The Theory of Forms mainly exists to guarantee stable referents for disputed evaluative terms; so if anything needs a Form, beauty does, and it will have a Form if any property does.

An individual F thing both is and is not F ; in this sense the same property F can only be predicated equivocally of the individual e. Republic a—c. Plato's analysis of equivocally F individuals Cratylus d—e, Symposium a recalls observations that everyone makes about beautiful objects. They fade with time; require an offsetting ugly detail; elicit disagreements among observers; lose their beauty outside their context adult shoes on children's feet. Here beauty does better than most other properties at meeting the criteria for Forms and non-Forms.

Odd numbers may fail to be odd in some hard-to-explain way, but the ways in which beautiful things fall short of their perfection are obvious even to unphilosophical admirers. Physical beauty is again atypical as a Form that human beings want to know.

This is the second reason Plato makes beauty such a frequent example of a Form. The philosophical merit of things that are equivocally F is that they come bearing signs of their incompleteness, so that the inquisitive mind wants to know more Republic c—d. But not everyone can read those signs of incompleteness. Soft or large items inspire questions in minds of an abstract bent. The perception of examples of justice or self-control presupposes moral development, so that the perceiver can recognize a law's double nature as just and unjust.

By contrast, beautiful things strike everyone, and arouse everyone's curiosity.

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Therefore, beauty promises more effective reflection than any other property of things. Beauty alone is both a Form and a sensory experience Phaedrus d. So the Phaedrus d—b and Symposium ignore people's experiences of other properties when they describe the first movement into philosophizing. Beautiful things remind souls of their mystery as no other visible objects do, and in his optimistic moments Plato welcomes people's attention to them.

Those optimistic moments are not easy to sustain. To make beauty effective for learning Plato needs to rely on its desirability as foregrounded in Konstan while also counting on the soul's ability to transfer its desiring from the visible to the intelligible see Philebus 65e. Plato is ambivalent about visual experience.

Sight may be metaphorically like knowledge, but metonymically it calls to mind the senses, which are ignorant Pappas , These desirable effects also explain why Plato speaks grudgingly of beauty in art and poetry.

Plato’s Aesthetics

For him the question is not whether poems are beautiful even perceived as beautiful , and subsequently whether or not they belong in a theory of that prized aesthetic property. Another question matters more than either poetry or beauty does: What leads a mind toward knowledge and the Forms? Things of beauty do so excellently well. Poems mostly don't.

When poems or paintings set the mind running along unphilosophical tracks away from what is abstract and intelligible, the attractions they possess will be seen as meretricious. The corrupting cognitive effect exercised by poems demonstrates their inability to function as Plato knows the beautiful object to function. The corrupting effect needs to be spelled out. What prevents poems from behaving as beautiful objects do?