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- Friedrich Nietzsche (1844–1900)
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Males averaged 1. The quality of the stimulus word seemed to exert an influence on reaction time.
The average shortest times followed concrete nouns, and the longest times followed abstract nouns and verbs. Educated men were the exception to this rule in that their longest average times followed concrete nouns. The quality of the reaction also seemed to influence reaction time.
Friedrich Nietzsche (1844–1900)
The longest times occured with abstract nouns 1. Again, educated men were an exception; their longest time occurring with concrete nouns. The quality of the association also exerted influence. Internal associations required a longer reaction time than external ones. Sound reaction, usually caused by inner distractions, also showed a relatively long reaction time. Long reaction times were usually caused by intense emotions and may have been used to uncover conscious and unconscious complexes, which could be important in hysteria.
Sometimes the feeling tone can extend to subsequent reactions. A new technique, the reproduction method, was used to identify associations attributable to complexes to determine whether failures of memory are accidental or whether there is a pattern to them. After the completion of an association test the experiment was repeated to find out whether the S remembered how he reacted to individual stimulus words.
In two Ss, both male, one aged 32 and undergoing psychoanalytic treatment and one aged 22, an excitable and sensitive person, it was found that the incorrect reproductions of answers to the repeated stimulus words were those that were directly constellated by a feeling toned complex or those that immediately followed a critical one.
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These disturbances of memory are cases of a general tendency to repress and forget an unpleasant impression. In the case of a year-old hysterical woman, the amnestic blockages extended over many subsequent reactions, and were considered hysterical amnesia. The reproduction method could be very useful in cases where analysis is difficult and in criminology. The usefulness of the association experiment in psychoanalysis is illustrated in a case of obsessional neurosis. The patient, female, single, 3 7 years old, an educated, intelligent teacher, wanted to try hypnosis for insomnia.
She was extremely nervous and restless, had a tic, and admitted to having obsessional ideas. She felt that a woman neighbor who had died recently had, on S's account, died without the last sacrament and, before that, had been haunted for several years by the fear that a boy whom she, as a governess, had brought up had died because she had occasionally beaten him. When she could not be hypnotized, the association experiment and the reproduction test were used. The mean reaction time of 2. The associations showed that the woman had an erotic complex, which she denied.
Gradually, however, she revealed a repressed obsession with sexual fantasies, which was traced back to a childhood sexual trauma. Repressing her sexual obsessions had led to obsessions in other areas in her life. Although S still suffered from insomnia after three weeks of Freudian analysis, she announced several months after treatment that all obsessional ideas had disappeared, and she could now sleep.
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It is concluded that word associations can be a valuable aid in recognizing the nature of the complex that is the cause of the illness, facilitating and shortening Freudian psychoanalysis. Once the split-off contents of the mind are released from a repression, they can be destroyed through an effort of the will. The associations also supply scientific insight into the origin and structure of psychogenic neuroses.
Diagnosing criminal cases by studying the psychological makeup of the witness through the word association method is discussed. The historical development of the method is outlined, and the association experiment is described. When stimulus words are called out, a subject's reaction is determined by the individual content of his ideas. A large number of component ideas charged with a feeling tone constitute a complex, which can be identified by reaction content, lengthened reaction time, and memory lapses during the reproduction method, in which the experiment is repeated.
The practical application of the association method in criminal cases is illustrated by its use in a case of a young man suspected of theft. Thirty seven critical stimulus words distributed among 63 irrelevant ones produced such suspicious reactions, reaction times, and memory lapses in the reproduction phase that the investigator accused the young man, and S finally confessed. Since it was considered possible that S reacted more strongly than a hardened criminal would have, a control experiment was conducted with an informed subject and an uninformed one.
The disappointing results, with symptoms of a complex observed at critical points in both subjects, reveal a fundamental weakness in the experiment: the multiplicity of meanings that the stimulus words can have. Many more than stimulus words should be used. The young man's reactions did, however, show more symptoms of a complex than the controls'. Although the association method should be used only by experts and, until it is further refined, cautiously, it has many possibilities.
The anomalies of word association in hysteria are illustrated by the case of a year-old girl who was extremely restless, feared madness, and complained of unbearable heat sensations in the head. The symptoms dated from her first menstruation at 15 and superseded chorea that had developed at age 7.
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S, physically healthy and fairly intelligent, was the youngest child of five. Her mother was completely crippled by osteomalacia. The association experiment was marked by an enormous number of failures, abnormally long reaction times, and other complex constellations showing that she was dominated by a number of complexes, particularly an illness complex, a sexual complex, and a school complex. Since the psychoanalysis was proceeding with difficulty, the patient's dreams were also studied. The dream analysis confirmed the sexual complex, and accompanying blockages revealed by the association test suggested a possible childhood sexual trauma.
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This erotic complex included some romantic attachment to the therapist, accompanied by a feeling of rejection and denial. The childhood chorea was diagnosed as a hysterical symptom devised to avoid writing lessons and going to school, and the heat sensations were symptomatic of the sexual complex, intensified in S's case by her fear of osteomalacia in pregnancy. Although the patient showed some improvement in treatment, her condition deteriorated after discharge.
Effective treatment of hysteria should strengthen what remains of the normal ego, and is best achieved by introducing a new complex to liberate the ego. The value to psychopathology of the association experiment, in which the subject says what is immediately called to mind when a stimulus word is called out, lies in the fact that association is a necessary sequence following certain laws.
In spite of objections based on the principles of chance and free will, the work of Kraepelin, Aschaffenburg, and others has empirically established certain patterns and rules. The associations have been divided into internal associations, in which the meaning of the words is the connecting link, and external associations, in which the connecting link is an external contingency. In sound associations the response is a word that sounds like the stimulus word.
It has been discovered that the more the attention of the subject decreases, the more the external and sound associations increase. This law is potentially important to understanding psychopathological states, in which the ability to concentrate is often disturbed.
The associations are determined by the whole personality and background. Long reaction times indicate feeling toned complexes, found in all normal subjects and very pronounced in psychopathology. In hysterical patients the times of critical reactions are much longer, and the barriers to recollection much stronger than in normal subjects. Two simple examples of the symptomatology of hysteria show that the hysterical patient suffers from a disorder of the affect he has been unable to conquer, and which his conscious mind finds unbearable. The same mechanism is demonstrated in dementia praecox, although other elements are also found in this disease.
Statistics are given to support an earlier, unfinished paper ''Experimental Observations on the Faculty of Memory" introducing the reproduction method, which was repeatedly criticized. The earlier paper maintained that most of a subject's memory failures in attempting to reproduce the original answers given on an association test can be traced to complexes. Although this memory failure had been observed in many cases, it was investigated in only two cases, in which it was particularly pronounced.
The material presented from 28 cases is heterogeneous, since only three subjects were normal and the rest were widely varying neurotics and psychotics. The results are similar to those of the first study.
A relation is established between incorrect reproduction and prolonged reaction time on the original association. The disturbance is usually correlated directly with a prolonged reaction time, but in some cases it follows a prolonged reaction time. The association that is incorrectly reproduced has, on the average, twice as many complex signs as the correctly reproduced one, including such characteristics as reaction by two or more words if this is not typical for the subject; repetition or misunderstanding of the the stimulus word; slips of the tongue; and use of a foreign word.
The complex characteristics tend to be grouped around certain specific associations.