Guide ADHD: Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: The 21 st century illness?

Free download. Book file PDF easily for everyone and every device. You can download and read online ADHD: Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: The 21 st century illness? file PDF Book only if you are registered here. And also you can download or read online all Book PDF file that related with ADHD: Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: The 21 st century illness? book. Happy reading ADHD: Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: The 21 st century illness? Bookeveryone. Download file Free Book PDF ADHD: Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: The 21 st century illness? at Complete PDF Library. This Book have some digital formats such us :paperbook, ebook, kindle, epub, fb2 and another formats. Here is The CompletePDF Book Library. It's free to register here to get Book file PDF ADHD: Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: The 21 st century illness? Pocket Guide.
Currently, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is intensively studied and that the diagnosis and treatment of this illness can be a matter invented by.
Table of contents

A historical view can provide necessary context to understand changes in the epidemiology of ADHD. The way that ADHD is diagnosed has changed over time, so the difference in these numbers is likely to be influenced by variations in how the diagnostic criteria were applied. In addition, there were differences in the demographic characteristics of the samples used to calculate the estimates.

It is also possible that the samples were exposed to factors that affect ADHD, but until more is known about these factors, it is not possible to know whether changes in these factors explain some of the variation. Perhaps relatedly, the number of FDA-approved ADHD medications increased noticeably since the s, after the introduction of long-acting formulations. Skip directly to site content Skip directly to page options Skip directly to A-Z link.

Section Navigation. Minus Related Pages. Data table. Get Email Updates. To receive email updates about this topic, enter your email address: Email Address. What's this? Links with this icon indicate that you are leaving the CDC website.

Do Lifestyle Factors Influence the Onset of ADHD in Children? - Object Health - ISGLOBAL

The scientific history of hyperactivity was characterized by reports of brain damage in children presenting with abnormal behavior Ross and Ross This indicated the growing notion that brain damage was the cause of hyperactive behavior Ross and Ross Further research in the s and s supported the idea of a causal connection between brain damage and deviant behavior Ross and Ross Children with a history of head injury were found to develop behavior disorders similar to the postencephalitic behavior disorder, while studies of birth trauma discovered a causative link between birth injury and mental retardation in children Kessler Infections, lead toxicity, and epilepsy were also found to be associated with various cognitive and behavioral problems Barkley a.

Rosenfeld and Bradley gave an account of typical behavior sequelae in children who suffered asphyxiant illness in infancy. They reported,. Six cardinal behavior characteristics make up this syndrome and may be listed as follows: 1. Unpredictable variability in mood; 2. Hypermotility; 3. Impulsiveness; 4. Short attention span; 5.

Fluctuant ability to recall material previously learned; and 6. Conspicuous difficulty with arithmetic in school. First, Tredgold had stated that mild forms of brain damage in infancy, although unnoticed at the time, could lead to behavioral sequelae, which became first apparent at school Ross and Ross Second, possible variations of brain damage in extent, locus, or type of lesion were discussed Kessler Under the influence of the work of Strauss and Lehtinen and Strauss and Kephart , it became general practice to infer brain damage solely from behavioral signs without any neurological evidence of damage Barkley a ; Ross and Ross In brain-injured and non-brain-injured mentally retarded children, Strauss and his colleagues identified a number of behavior patterns, on the basis of which they could distinguish these two groups Ross and Ross In particular, they considered the symptom of hyperactivity as a sufficient diagnostic sign of underlying brain damage Ross and Ross Minimal brain damage was therefore supposed to be clearly associated with a specific syndrome Conners Laufer et al.

It has long been recognized and accepted that a persistent disturbance of behavior of a characteristic kind may be noted after severe head injury, epidemic encephalitis and communicable disease encephalopathies, such as measles, in children. It has often been observed that a behavior pattern of a similar nature may be found in children who present no clear-cut history of any of the classical causes mentioned.

ADHD in Children (Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder)

This pattern will henceforth be referred to as hyperkinetic impulse disorder. In brief summary, hyperactivity is the most striking item. This may be noted from early infancy on or not become prominent until five or six years of age. There are also a short attention span and poor powers of concentration, which are particularly noticeable under school conditions. Variability also is frequent, with the child being described as quite unpredictable and with wide fluctuations in performance.

Outstandingly also these children seem unable to tolerate any delay in gratification of their needs and demands. They are irritable and explosive, with low frustration tolerance. The hypothesis that minimal brain damage may lead to behavior disorders became well established. Following the administration of amphetamines, however, the threshold was similar to that of children without evidence of the syndrome Laufer et al.

Laufer and his colleagues supposed a dysfunction of the diencephalon to be the cause of the hyperkinetic syndrome Laufer et al. Their results suggested a functional disturbance rather than damage to the brain as the cause of the characteristic syndrome Conners In , the Oxford International Study Group of Child Neurology Bax and MacKeith held a conference and stated that brain damage should not be inferred from problematic behavior signs alone.

It became clear that this term has, for most people, the anatomical and aetiological implications that there has been an episode of injury and that this has produced anatomical change. They furthermore recommended that any effort should be undertaken to classify the heterogeneous group of children subsumed under the concept of minimal brain dysfunction into smaller and more homogenous subgroups Ross and Ross Another conference held in by the National Institute of Neurological Diseases and Blindness Conners ; Kessler assigned a national task force to work on terminology and identification of minimal brain dysfunction Rie The national task force formulated the following official definition Clements :.

The term minimal brain dysfunction refers to children of near average, average or above average general intelligence with certain learning or behavioural disabilities ranging from mild to severe, which are associated with deviations of function of the central nervous system.

Attention-Deficit / Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) in Children

These deviations may manifest themselves by various combinations of impairment in perception, conceptualisation, language, memory and control of attention, impulse or motor function. The concept of the three main symptoms of inattention, impulsivity, and hyperactivity characterizing ADHD was therefore established with the definition of minimal brain dysfunction. The presence of neurodevelopmental abnormalities was argued to be non-specific and also common in other psychiatric disorders Schaffe et al. It was found that many cases of known brain damage or dysfunction did not show hyperactivity or other symptoms postulated by the concept of minimal brain damage or dysfunction Birch , cited by Conners In , a definition of the concept of hyperactivity was incorporated in the official diagnostic nomenclature, i.

Deficits in attention and impulse control were, however, considered significant symptoms in establishing a diagnosis Barkley a. DSM-III developed three separate symptom lists for inattention, impulsivity, and hyperactivity, which were far more specific than previous ones Barkley a. The discussion regarding the importance of certain symptoms continued, and the creation of subtypes of ADD on the basis of the presence or absence of hyperactivity was discussed controversially Barkley a.

A Handbook of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) in the Interdisciplinary Perspective

At that time, it was not evident if the attention deficit of the subtype of ADD without hyperactivity was qualitatively similar to that of the subtype with hyperactivity, or if the two types had to be considered as two separate psychiatric disorders Barkley a. The symptoms of inattention, impulsivity, and hyperactivity were combined into a single list of symptoms with a single cutoff score.

The symptoms were empirically derived by rating scales and a field trial Barkley a ; Conners In addition to the reorganization of the concept of ADD, several studies examined the existence of subtypes of ADD at the end of the s Barkley a.

References

In addition, some doubts arose as to the central role of a deficit in attention in so-called ADHD. The view emerged that motivational factors and deficits in reinforcement mechanisms were of major importance Barkley a. Historical interpretations of brain damage or dysfunction were supported by the evidence of structural abnormalities in the brain of children with ADHD as shown with new neuroimaging techniques. Further research found a genetic component of the disorder Biederman et al. Three subtypes of ADHD were identified on the basis of structured diagnostic interviews of multiple informants and of validation diagnoses.

By using this categorization, the concept of the two separate dimensions of attention deficit and hyperactivity-impulsivity was reverted Conners and the possibility of a diagnosis of a purely inattentive form of the disorder was reintroduced Barkley a. The American Psychiatric Association accredited the diagnosis of ADHD in adulthood by including examples of workplace difficulties in the depiction of symptoms.

Recent News

The definition of ADHD has therefore not been changed. A new edition of the DSM is in progress. The publication of the fifth edition of the DSM is not scheduled until However, significant differences are still evident in the number of criteria in each domain required for a diagnosis, the importance of inattention and the handling of comorbidity. In comparison with DSM-IV, ICD is more demanding about cross-situational pervasiveness and requires that all necessary criteria be present, both at home and at school or other situations.

The development of the international classification systems appears to reflect a growing consensus regarding the clinical entity of ADHD.

What is ADHD?

Evidence has been presented Faraone to show that ADHD meets the criteria established by Robins and Guze for the validation of psychiatric diagnoses. Patients with ADHD show a characteristic pattern of hyperactivity, inattention, and impulsivity that lead to adverse outcomes.


  1. A Trace of Saint Francis.
  2. Rescued by the Buccaneer (Pirates of the Jolie Rouge Book 1).
  3. Facts, values, and Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD): an update on the controversies;
  4. Adult ADHD;
  5. 21st Century Psychology: A Reference Handbook - Google Книги.
  6. Toolbag For Life, Living, & Love?
  7. Unto Us A Boy Is Born.

ADHD can be distinguished from other psychiatric disorders including those with which it is frequently comorbid. Longitudinal studies have demonstrated that ADHD is invariably chronic and not an episodic disorder. Twin studies show that ADHD is a highly heritable disorder. Neuroimaging studies show that ADHD patients have abnormalities in frontal-subcortical-cerebellar systems involved in the regulation of attention, motor behavior, and inhibition.

Many individuals with ADHD show a therapeutic response to medications that block the dopamine or noradrenaline transporter. This evidence as reviewed by Faraone supports the hypothesis of ADHD being a clinical entity and fulfilling the Robins and Guze validity criteria.

However, there has been considerable debate about this issue. Critics have described ADHD as a diagnosis used to label difficult children who are not ill but whose behavior is at the extreme end of the normal range. Most of the research studies available rely on clinically referred cases, i. The generalization of the research findings to non-referred cases in the community is therefore not necessarily valid. In addition, there is a remarkable overlap of these ADHD symptoms with those of comorbid mental health conditions or learning problems. A consistent genetic marker has not been found, and neuroimaging studies have been unable to identify a distinctive etiology for ADHD.

The lack of evidence of a unique genetic, biological, or neurological pathology hinders the general acceptance of ADHD as a neurobehavioral disease entity. In addition, the ratings of school children with ADHD by parents and teachers are frequently discrepant and do not appear to provide an objective diagnostic basis. The issue of the clinical entity of ADHD remains therefore an open question and requires further investigation. Nervenarzt — Barkley RA a Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. J Atten Disord — J Abnorm Psychol — Little Club Clinics in developmental medicine.

Heineman, London. Bender L Postencephalitic behavior disorders in children. In: Neal JB ed Encephalitis: a clinical study. Birch HG Brain damage in children: the biological and social aspects. Bradley C The behavior of children receiving benzedrine. Am J Psychiatry — Am J Psychiatry Clements SD Minimal brain dysfunction in children: terminology and identification: phase one of a three-phase project. Diagnosis and treatment. Arch Gen Psychiatry — Crichton A An inquiry into the nature and origin of mental derangement: comprehending a concise system of the physiology and pathology of the human mind and a history of the passions and their effects.

On attention and its diseases.