Guide Adaptation forced by external factors? The anti-Semitism movement in Fascist Italy

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policy and the progressive anti-Jewish movement under Mussolini? Italian anti-Semitism movement arose from internal, historically constituted factors, and it.
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Fellow Nigerian passengers on his flight verify that they wore shackles all over their bodies, were tied to seats and made to wear helmets by police. In processing applications, when governments across Europe regularly refuse asylum or issue deportation orders they can have enormous impacts upon the psychological and emotional state of failed applicants. UNITED has recorded many instances over the years where news of forced repatriation or failed asylum claims have resulted in suicide.

In Hamburg in alone, Wadim S from Latvia jumped in front of a train, whilst Yeni P, a 34 Indonesian woman and David Mardiani, a Georgian of 17 years, hanged themselves in a deportation centre — all whilst awaiting deportation. Residents of a tower block in Glasgow, UK awoke in March to discover deep indentations on the ground, where Serge and Tatiana Serykh and their son had jumped from their flat on the 15th floor in a suicide pact.

The family, who were thought to be Kosovan or Russian, had recently heard that their asylum claims were rejected. Migration News Sheet, April There is a clear defect in immigration and asylum policies across Europe; the blind ambition of governments to control migration flows and meet immigration targets are not matched by resources, skills and training of the staff employed to conduct procedures. When policies are shaped purely as a reaction to statistics and goals, they are both ill thought out and difficult to implement.

Frequent changes to the application process, to employment and movement restrictions, and entitlement to support services and healthcare all around Europe often lead to confusion, misapplication and result in unnecessary deaths.


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In May , the body of Abdoulaye, a 20 year old from the Ivory Coast was found hidden under a lorry in Malaga. He had begun this journey in Ceuta, where he had applied for asylum in January — the same month in which regional procedures for handling admissible asylum claims were changed. When he initially attempted to leave for the Spanish Peninsular, guards misinterpreted recent changes to asylum procedures and prevented him, which led to him embarking on his fatal journey as a stowaway.

When his body was discovered in Malaga, authorities found he had been carrying the yellow card with him, certifying that he had the right to travel freely within Spanish territory the whole time. If the authorities themselves are unable to understand the correct procedures, how can migrants be expected to? Migration News Sheet, June Due to recent racial laws approved in Italy, in March a month-old baby from Nigeria was refused medical treatment in a hospital emergency unit, as her father had not renewed his NHS card.

Her condition became more severe later that night, but upon returning staff told her family they could neither examine nor admit her. She died soon after. EveryOne Group, April Policies and laws are being implemented all across the continent that exclude and discriminate in the provision of basic, vital healthcare and support. Because of their accountability to funding bodies and authorities, hospitals opt for a clean bill over human life. Bowing to public pressure, there have been attempts to improve asylum procedures for children; pledging to end child detention in the UK for example.

However, as governments reform conditions for unaccompanied minors, they take one step forward and two steps back. In pledging to stop such practice, instead of developing workable strategies to fully integrate them into their host society, allowing them to remain in the communities they have become parts of, many governments turn to alternative options to keep them excluded. It is debatable whether European governments could truly ensure safety and welfare in the war torn countries that these children have fled from. This is yet another example of EU policy driven by targets and objectives rather than humanity.

In despe-ration, they often take extraordinary steps to escape from danger; Maiouad, a year-old Afghani boy was killed in a road accident near Calais, France whilst attempting to stowaway in December and one year earlier, Rezai Mahamut was run over by the wheels of the lorry he was hiding under in Italy. At any age, the enormous trauma of forced migration it is no doubt difficult to deal with, and many undergo mental and psychological distress at the hands of asylum procedures.

What is Fascism?

Expecting children to fully comprehend and process their situations is especially unrealistic. Children, left without families and without a home, need our compassion and support; year-old Hamid al-Amrani had already been identified as deeply distressed. Once his father had been deported back to Morocco, he was taken to a Madrid psychotherapy centre notorious for staff carelessness and mistreatment.

Kept in isolation, Hamid hanged himself with a belt from his bathrobe in December Instead of providing him with the attention needed for a child with mental illness, intolerable care and staff neglect failed him. ABC, February Migrants flee from their country of origin due to social, economic, political and environmental factors that restrict their quality of life. The Geneva Convention, which defines a refugee and the rights they are entitled to, does not recognise climate refugees or environmental displacement as grounds for forced migration. But when, according to the Environmental Justice Foundation, 25,, environmental migrants exist in and this is estimated to increase to ,, by , the figures speak for themselves.

It is difficult to calculate the environmentally displaced; regional climates are not often the sole reason for migration but the underlying root cause of social, political and economic factors such as unemployment, poverty, access to resources and conflict. This region has experienced two major droughts in the past 50 years, which have affected land, water, biodiversity and the industries and communities relying on these natural resources.

The common route from North Africa to the southern coasts of Europe is a graveyard of irregular migrants; 12 West Africans died of thirst in an attempt to cross the Algerian desert in August , and at least 6 died at the hands of police during a riot in a Libyan detention centre in June — 12 Somalis are still missing.


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    • Even if they are able to set sail from the African coast, using rickety boats on stormy seas, all too often they never arrive. In the same year, 16 Africans drowned in the Evros River trying to get to Greece in June and 19 died after their boat capsized when travelling from Turkey to Greece. A new convention that defines environmentally displaced persons and outlines their rights is required, as well as a separate funding mechanism. This is the only way to force governments to take responsibility in allocating resources towards affected communities through proper resettlement programmes and helping vulnerable com-munities to adapt and cope better with the unavoidable impact that climate change has already started having on their lives.

    Moreover, the legal recognition of environmental migration is an important step forward in pushing policy-makers to recognise the severity of human-made climate change and reach a fair and effective global agreement on how to deal with it. UNITED collects data on where, when and under which circum-stances migrants died; all the cases contained in the List of Deaths are documented.

    It does not pretend to have a strong scientific basis, but nevertheless, the list is an extremely important tool for campaigning on the issue. It lacks a strong scientific basis so credible quantitative analysis based on the data cannot be con-ducted, however it lends itself well to qualitative research. It is accessible and appealing for researchers, journalists and artists who, by making creative use of the list, generate further awareness-raising through their work and projects.

    The sheer number of deaths documented on the list is powerful in itself, yet each individual casualty must not get lost in the statistics. The human dimension is what makes the data so potent; by giving attention to the very real challenges, struggles and suffering that migrants face, you help your target audience to relate to and engage with the situation. In your campaigning, adopt cases that you feel will resonate most strongly with them — some possible options have been highlighted throughout this leaflet — if necessary, contact the UNITED secretariat for more background information.

    These deaths are not isolated incidents. European governments have tried to implement border control and militarisation policies. The more they try, and the stricter the laws they implement, the higher the number of deaths gets. By reinforcing their exclusionist policy, they are shutting their eyes to the realities of the global political and socio-economical situation. By ignoring the tragedies experienced in the countries where most of the refugees come from, Europe is actually missing the point of the whole refugee and asylum question.

    European policies are also missing the humanity of those fleeing those lands, and rather considering them in terms of a problem. Europe has responded to this alleged urgency by making legal immigration and asylum nearly impossible, thus leading to the death of refugees.

    Introduction

    More info about Death by Policy. Amnesty International, June By contracting out border policing, migrants are subjected to the inhumane treatment that the Human Rights Convention prohibits. There are conflicting interests for such countries to adopt these measures; Turkey for example has valuable trade and economic relations with countries such as Armenia and Georgia, but is forced to limit these and allow EU member states to have access to restricted information and their border operations Euskirchen, Lebuhn et al, There are further realignments and restructuring of borders; no longer confined to controls at crossings and immigration checkpoints, all busy population flows such as public transport routes, train and bus stations, service areas and city plazas are considered strategic points of transit.

    Detention This is yet another field of government activity in which EU policy has pressured member states, especially new members, to adopt a more restrictive, hard-line approach towards irregular migrants. Setmanari Directa, May In April , a 40 year old Kenyan man died in a UK detention centre as a result of being denied medical treatment; his pleas to staff for painkillers and medical treatment were ignored, and an ambulance that was called by other detainees was, critically, turned away by centre staff. Guardian, April Migrants in holding facilities are treated worse than criminals; in many countries, these centres function as no more than basic prisons.

    Copenhagen Post, April Deportation Whether due to a belief that countries in conflict are now safe places to return to, or simply that the requirements to remain in the receiving countries have not been met, deportation is a convenient way to cattle people around and manage immigration statistics.

    Process ineffectiveness There is a clear defect in immigration and asylum policies across Europe; the blind ambition of governments to control migration flows and meet immigration targets are not matched by resources, skills and training of the staff employed to conduct procedures. Dimitri Kitsikis , a Greek Turkologist and Sinologist, proposed a model of fascism in featuring 13 categories by which fascist ideologies, movements and establishments can be analyzed and contrasted with others: [32].

    Using this model, Kitsikis argued that Jean-Jacques Rousseau , philosopher and father of the French Revolution , laid the foundations of French Fascism.

    10 Things You Didn't Know About Fascist Italy

    The results of his analysis showed that the party's ideology satisfies all the criteria of nine categories nine points , some of the criteria of three categories 1. A total score of John Lukacs , Hungarian-American historian and Holocaust survivor, argues in the Hitler of History that there is no such thing as generic fascism, claiming that National Socialism and Italian Fascism were more different than similar and that, alongside communism, they were ultimately radical forms of populism. Ernst Nolte , a German historian and Hegelian philosopher, defined fascism in as a reaction against other political movements, especially Marxism : "Fascism is anti-Marxism which seeks to destroy the enemy by the evolvement of a radically opposed and yet related ideology and by the use of almost identical and yet typically modified methods, always, however, within the unyielding framework of national self-assertion and autonomy.

    His definition is directly descended from the view put forth by Ernesto Laclau , and is also informed by a desire to adjust for what he believes are shortcomings in Marxist, Weberian and other analyses of fascism: [37]. Fascist nationalism is reactionary in that it entails implacable hostility to socialism and feminism, for they are seen as prioritizing class or gender rather than nation. This is why fascism is a movement of the extreme right. Fascism is also a movement of the radical right because the defeat of socialism and feminism and the creation of the mobilized nation are held to depend upon the advent to power of a new elite acting in the name of the people, headed by a charismatic leader, and embodied in a mass, militarized party.

    Fascists are pushed towards conservatism by common hatred of socialism and feminism, but are prepared to override conservative interests - family, property, religion, the universities, the civil service - where the interests of the nation are considered to require it. Fascist radicalism also derives from a desire to assuage discontent by accepting specific demands of the labour and women's movements, so long as these demands accord with the national priority.

    All aspects of fascist policy are suffused with ultranationalism. Robert Paxton , a professor emeritus at Columbia University , defines fascism in his book The Anatomy of Fascism as:. A form of political behavior marked by obsessive preoccupation with community decline, humiliation or victimhood and by compensatory cults of unity, energy and purity, in which a mass-based party of committed nationalist militants, working in uneasy but effective collaboration with traditional elites, abandons democratic liberties and pursues with redemptive violence and without ethical or legal restraints goals of internal cleansing and external expansion.

    In the same book, Paxton also argues that fascism's foundations lie in a set of "mobilizing passions" rather than an elaborated doctrine.

    What is Fascism?

    He argues these passions can explain much of the behaviour of fascists: [38]. Historian of fascism Stanley G. Payne created a lengthy list of characteristics to identify fascism in [39] [40] in summary form, there are three main strands. His typology is regularly cited by reliable sources as a standard definition. First, Payne's "fascist negations" refers to such typical policies as anti-communism and anti-liberalism. Second, "fascist goals" include a nationalist dictatorship and an expanded empire.

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    Third, "fascist style", is seen in its emphasis on violence and authoritarianism, and its exultation of men above women, and young above old. One of the world's leading experts on fascism, Zeev Sternhell , describes Fascism as a reaction against modernity and a backlash against the changes it had caused to society, as a "rejection of the prevailing systems: liberalism and Marxism, positivism and democracy. John Weiss , a Wayne State University history professor, described fascist ideas in his book, The Fascist Tradition: Radical Right-Wing Extremism in Modern Europe : organicist conceptions of community, philosophical idealism , idealization of " manly " usually peasant or village virtues, resentment of mass democracy , elitist conceptions of political and social leadership, racism and usually anti-Semitism , militarism and Imperialism.

    Marxists argue that fascism represents the last attempt of a ruling class specifically, the capitalist bourgeoisie to preserve its grip on power in the face of an imminent proletarian revolution. Fascist movements are not necessarily created by the ruling class, but they can only gain political power with the help of that class and with funding from big business. Once in power, the fascists serve the interests of their benefactors. German playwright Bertolt Brecht describes fascism as: "a historic phase of capitalism" and " Georgi Dimitrov , Bulgarian Communist , was a theorist of capitalism who expanded Lenin 's ideas and the work of Clara Zetkin.

    Esposito fascism v1 en - Fascism – Concepts and Theories

    Delivering an official report to the 7th World Congress of the Communist Third International in August , Bulgarian Communist leader Georgi Dimitrov cited the definition of fascism formulated with the help of Clara Zetkin at the Third Plenum as "the open, terrorist dictatorship of the most reactionary , most chauvinistic , and most imperialist elements of finance capital ". It is not "the revolt of the petty bourgeoisie which has captured the machinery of the state," as the British Socialist Brailsford declares.

    No, fascism is not a power standing above class, nor government of the petty bourgeoisie or the lumpen-proletariat over finance capital.