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Table of contents
- History of the Jews in Spain
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Rosensweig, supra , at 56 a sage could not use the rule known as Gezerah Shavah to propose a new Jewish law rule; a sage could only use the rule in a way that he had been expressly taught by his teacher. See Schimmel, supra n. Press ; see generally Birnbaum, supra n. See Segal, supra n. See Feinstein , Moses , Dibrot Moshe: Shabbat — Mesorah Heritage Found. See Wurzburger, supra n. See Kaplan, supra n. See Turkei, supra n. Some people might mistakenly believe that the Israeli Chief Rabbinate might currently possess such authority. Nevertheless, the Israeli Chief Rabbinate is an institution within Israel's secular governmental structure.
Although many of the rabbis who have held positions within the Israeli Chief Rabbinate have been outstanding scholars, they have not necessarily been the greatest scholars in Israel. Even if they had been the greatest scholars in the land of Israel, this would not have given them the authority that the Great Sanhedrin enjoyed.
A Current Halakhic Perspective , 26 Tradition 26 Fendel , Zechariah , Lights of the Exile: Early Acharonim , , Hashkafah Publications discussing efforts to revive Mosaic ordination, which would ultimately permit reestablishment of the Sanhedrin ha-Gadol. See Arukh , Shulhan , Hoshen Mishpat 2.
See Turkel, supra n. See Maimonides, Introduction, supra n. Non-Torah rule, whether based on local legislation, customs or the like, may be added. See generally Bleich , J. David , Contemporary Halakhic Problems vol. Maimonides , , Mishneh Torah, Laws of Courts 5: This may be because, in the absence of a Jewish king, rabbinic authorities may possess executive powers.
And why did Rabbaynu Hakadosh [i. Because he saw that the disciples were diminishing in number and leaving, that the persecutions were intensifying and multiplying, that the Roman Empire was extending its power over the globe and strengthening, and that Israel was continuously being dispersed throughout the extremities of the earth. He therefore compiled this one work to be in the possession of all, so that they could learn quickly and in a way that they would not forget.
So he and his Bes Din [i. See also Bergman, supra n. Early authorities dispute whether Rabbi Yehuda ha-Nasi merely arranged the Mishnah and taught it orally or whether he actually was the person who published them. See Bergman, supra n. Rav compiled the Sifra and the Sifrei to expound and teach the basic principles of the Mishnah. R' Chiya compiled the Tosefta to explain the subject matter of the Mishnah.
R' Akiva also wrote a Mechilta , and other Sages compiled midrashim. All these works were composed before the Babylonian Talmud. Rabbi Yohanan was primarily responsible for editing the debates in the Jerusalem academies, and this resulted in publication of the Jerusalem Talmud circa Some say it was redacted later. The authority of the Babylonian Talmud, however, far eclipsed that of the Jerusalem Talmud.
The character of the redaction, the political conditions, and factors internal to the Jewish community all worked against the widespread study of the Jerusalem Talmud, which was considered less authoritative than the Babylonian Talmud. Pursuant to a principle established in a later period, Talmudic law may be ascertained from both the Babylonian and Jerusalem Talmuds, but in case of a conflict between them, the Babylonian Talmud is determinative. The Jerusalem Talmud still awaits its redeemer.
Deliberations in the Babylonian academies continued well after those in their Jerusalem counterparts. Rav Ashi and his colleague Ravina d. The Amoraim attempted to solve Jewish law questions with the teachings of the Tannaim. The last generation of Amoraim, however, confronted a number of problems which they were able to resolve based on their own reasoning but for which they were unable to find Tannaitic support. As a result, they chose not to include their solutions in the Talmud, and left the questions unanswered.
They added the Amoraims' own explanations to the text and sometimes added their own comments by adding anonymous narration. The Savoraim were the last to contribute to the actual Talmudic text, which was published in Nevertheless, it is unclear whether this is a Torah principle or a rabbinic principle. See generally Broyde , Michael J. The Corporate Paradigm , 43 Wayne L.
Of course, it is much more than that. The Talmud is the repository of thousands of years of Jewish wisdom, and the Oral Torah, which is as ancient and significant as the written law the Torah , finds expression therein. It is a conglomerate of law, legend, and philosophy, a blend of unique logic and shrewd pragmatism, of history and science, anecdotes and humor. It is a collection of paradoxes: Everything in the Babylonian Talmud is binding on all Israel. Every town and country must follow the customs, obey the decrees, and carry out the enactments of the Talmudic Sages, because the entire Jewish people accepted everything contained in the Talmud.
The Sages who adopted the enactments and decrees, instituted the practices, rendered the decisions, and derived the laws, constituted all or most of the Sages of Israel. It is they who received the tradition of the fundamentals of the entire Torah in unbroken succession going back to Moses, our teacher. In many ways the Talmud is the most important book in Jewish culture, the backbone of creativity and of national life.
No other work has had a comparable influence on the theory and practice of Jewish life. Even before the Talmud was completed, it was evident that this work was to become the basic text and primary source for Jewish law. It is actually the last book of source material in Jewish literature, since the works that followed were to a large extent based on it, derived their authority from it, and consulted it whenever necessary for elucidation of theoretical and practical problems.
See generally Goldwurm, supra n. Some of these authorities authored books enumerating and expounding on the commandments of the Torah, while others wrote incisive and, in some cases, comprehensive Talmudic commentaries. Still others rendered specific legal conclusions on a great many questions based on the Talmud. Some of these authorities set forth their rulings in the order in which the questions are addressed in the Talmud. Because the Talmud often goes off in wide-ranging tangents, these sets of legal conclusions can be virtually inaccessible to those unfamiliar with the underlying Talmudic debates.
Other authorities, however, arranged their rulings by subject, making them user-friendly even to those with little direct experience with the Talmud. Maimonides, for example, created an elaborate framework in which he analytically organized virtually all facets of Jewish law.
Another authority, Rav Yaakov ben Asher c. For general biographical information on Rav Yaakov ben Asher, see Goldwurm, supra n. For information about the Arba'ah Turim, see generally Birnbaum, supra n. Rabbi Yosef Caro lived from to For general biographical information, see The Early Acharonim, supra n. Moses Isserles lived from to For biographical information, see Goldwurm, supra n. See also Woolf, supra n. Joseph Caro or Rema. One of the most significant of these codes is the Commentary entitled, Mishnah Berurah , written by ha-Kohen , Yisroel Meir Chafetz Chaim , — As to the role of responsa, see generally Goldish , Matt , Jewish Questions: Mishnah , , Teachings of the Fathers 1: Provide yourself with a teacher.
See Bunim , Irving M.
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There are, however, some general rules for determining whether the Talmud reached a consensus on a particular issue. This particular aspect of Talmudic analysis is one of many reasons why neophytes are limited as to what they can accomplish. Those who lack experience and knowledge of the background literature are unaware of the various possible proofs or disproofs that are omitted. Kirschenbaum , Aaron , Mara De-Atra: A Brief Sketch , 27 Tradition 35 Summer Angel , Marc D.
Arukh , Shulhan , Yoreh Deah 23, 31, 35 — 36 Hebrew. Resnicoff , Steven H. Of course, much of the flexibility is in the application of the law, not merely in the interpretation of the law. Soon, however, he became more friendly, confirming the Jews in all their former privileges and even granting them additional ones, by which they were placed on an equality with Catholics. Considerable influence with the king was enjoyed by Judah ben Joseph ibn Ezra Nasi. After the conquest of Calatrava the king placed Judah in command of the fortress, later making him his court chamberlain.
History of the Jews in Spain
Judah ben Joseph stood in such favor with the king that the latter, at his request, not only admitted into Toledo the Jews who had fled from the persecutions of the Almohades, but even assigned many fugitives dwellings in Flascala near Toledo , Fromista, Carrion, Palencia, and other places, where new congregations were soon established. Jews fought in both armies, and after the declaration of peace they were placed in charge of the fortresses. When the king was defeated at the battle of Alarcos by the Almohades under Yusuf Abu Ya'kub al-Mansur, the defeat was attributed to the king's love-affair with Fermosa, and she and her relatives were murdered in Toledo by the nobility.
After the victory at Alarcos the emir Mohammed al-Nasir ravaged Castile with a powerful army and threatened to overrun the whole of Catholic Spain. The Archbishop of Toledo called to crusade to aid Alfonso. In this war against the Moors the king was greatly aided by the wealthy Jews of Toledo, especially by his "almoxarife mayor", the learned and generous Nasi Joseph ben Solomon ibn Shoshan Al-Hajib ibn Amar.
The Crusaders were hailed with joy in Toledo, but this joy was soon changed to sorrow, as far as the Jews were concerned. The Crusaders began the "holy war" in Toledo by robbing and killing the Jews, and if the knights had not checked them with armed forces all the Jews in Toledo would have been slain. When, after the sanguinary battle of Las Navas de Tolosa , Alfonso victoriously entered Toledo, the Jews went to meet him in triumphal procession. Shortly before his death Oct. The clergy's endeavors directed against the Jews became more and more pronounced.
The Spanish Jews of both sexes, like the Jews of France, were compelled to distinguish themselves from Catholics by wearing a yellow badge on their clothing; this order was issued to keep them from associating with Catholics, although the reason given was that it was ordered for their own safety.
The papal bull issued by Pope Innocent IV in April , to the effect that Jews might not build a new synagogue without special permission, also made it illegal for Jews to proselytize, under pain of death and confiscation of property. They might not associate with the Catholics, live under the same roof with them, eat and drink with them, or use the same bath; neither might a Catholic partake of wine which had been prepared by a Jew.
The Jews might not employ Catholic nurses or servants, and Catholics might use only medicinal remedies which had been prepared by competent Catholic apothecaries. The Jews were forbidden to appear in public on Good Friday. They owned real estate, and they cultivated their land with their own hands; they filled public offices, and on account of their industry they became wealthy while their knowledge and ability won them respect and influence. But this prosperity roused the jealousy of the people and provoked the hatred of the clergy; the Jews had to suffer much through these causes.
The Jews were vassals of the king, the same as Christian commoners. There were about Jewish communities in Catholic Spain around , with somewhere around half a million or more Jews, [ citation needed ] mostly in Castille. Even though the Spanish Jews engaged in many branches of human endeavor—agriculture, viticulture, industry, commerce, and the various handicrafts—it was the money business that procured to some of them their wealth and influence.
Kings and prelates, noblemen and farmers, all needed money and could obtain it only from the Jews, to whom they paid from 20 to 25 per cent interest. This business, which, in a manner, the Jews were forced to pursue [ citation needed ] in order to pay the many taxes imposed upon them as well as to raise the compulsory loans demanded of them by the kings, [ citation needed ] led to their being employed in special positions, as "almonries", bailiffs, tax farmers tax collectors. The Jews of Spain formed in themselves a separate political body. They lived almost solely in the Juderias, various enactments being issued from time to time preventing them from living elsewhere.
From the time of the Moors they had had their own administration. At the head of the aljamas in Castile stood the "rab de la corte", or "rab mayor" court, or chief, rabbi , also called "juez mayor" chief justice , who was the principal mediator between the state and the aljamas.
These court rabbis were men who had rendered services to the state, as, for example, David ibn Yah. They were appointed by the kings, no regard being paid to the rabbinical qualifications or religious inclination of those chosen. In the beginning of the fourteenth century the position of Jews became precarious throughout Spain as anti-Semitism increased. Many Jews emigrated from Castile and from Aragon. Peter I , the son and successor of Alfonso XI, was relatively favorably disposed toward the Jews, who under him reached the zenith of their influence - often exemplified by the success of his treasurer Samuel Ha-Levi.
For this reason the king was called "the heretic"; and was often called "the cruel". Peter, whose education had been neglected, was not quite sixteen years of age when he ascended the throne From the commencement of his reign he so surrounded himself with Jews that his enemies in derision spoke of his court as "a Jewish court".
The more friendly Peter showed himself toward the Jews, and the more he protected them, the more antagonistic became the attitude of his illegitimate half-brother, who, when he invaded Castile in , murdered all the Jews living in Najera and exposed those of Miranda de Ebro to robbery and death. Nevertheless they suffered greatly. Villadiego whose Jewish community numbered many scholars , Aguilar , and many other towns were totally destroyed. The inhabitants of Valladolid , who paid homage to his half brother Henry, robbed the Jews, destroyed their houses and synagogues, and tore their Torah scrolls to pieces.
The suffering, according to a contemporary writer, Samuel Zarza of Palencia had reached its culminating point, especially in Toledo, which was being besieged by Henry, and in which no less than 8, persons died through famine and the hardships of war. A few weeks before his death he reproached his physician and astrologer Abraham ibn Zarzal for not having told the truth in prophesying good fortune for him. Prolonged warfare had devastated the land; the people had become accustomed to lawlessness, and the Jews had been reduced to poverty.
He employed wealthy Jews—Samuel Abravanel and others—as financial councilors and tax-collectors. His contador mayor , or chief tax-collector, was Joseph Pichon of Seville.
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The clergy, whose power became greater and greater under the reign of the fratricide, stirred the anti-Jewish prejudices of the masses into clamorous assertion at the Cortes of Toro in It was demanded that the Jews should be kept far from the palaces of the grandees, should not be allowed to hold public office, should live apart from the Catholics, should not wear costly garments nor ride on mules, should wear the badge, and should not be allowed to bear Catholic names.
The king granted the two last-named demands, as well as a request made by the Cortes of Burgos that the Jews should neither carry arms nor sell weapons; but he did not prevent them from holding religious disputations, nor did he deny them the exercise of criminal jurisprudence. The latter prerogative was not taken from them until the reign of John I, Henry's son and successor; he withdrew it because certain Jews, on the king's coronation-day, by withholding the name of the accused, had obtained his permission to inflict the death-penalty on Joseph Pichon, who stood high in the royal favor; the accusation brought against Pichon included "harboring evil designs, informing, and treason".
Whoever caused the conversion to Judaism of a Moor or of any one confessing another faith, or performed the rite of circumcision upon him, became a slave and the property of the treasury. Against his desire, John was obliged to issue an order prohibiting the employment of Jews as financial agents or tax-farmers to the king, queen, infantes, or grandees. To this was added the resolution adopted by the Council of Palencia ordering the complete separation of Jews and Catholics and the prevention of any association between them.
A revolt broke out in Seville in On June 6 the mob attacked the Juderia in Seville from all sides and killed 4, Jews; the rest submitted to baptism as the only means of escaping death. Of the three large synagogues existing in the city two were transformed into churches. Before the authorities could come to the aid of the defenseless people, every one of them — children, young women, old men — had been ruthlessly slain; 2, corpses lay in heaps in the streets, in the houses, and in the wrecked synagogues. A horrible butchery took place in Toledo on June Among the many martyrs were the descendants of the famous Toledan rabbi Asher ben Jehiel.
Most of the Castilian communities suffered from the persecution; nor were the Jews of Aragon, Catalonia, or Majorca spared. On July 9, an outbreak occurred in Valencia. More than persons were killed, and most of the Jews of that city were baptized by the friar Vicente Ferrer, whose presence in the city was probably not accidental. The only community remaining in the former kingdom of Valencia was that of Murviedro.
Three days later, on Saturday, August 5, a riot began in Barcelona. On the first day, Jews were killed, while several hundred found refuge in the new fort; on the following day the mob invaded the Juderia and began pillaging. The authorities did all in their power to protect the Jews, but the mob attacked them and freed those of its leaders who had been imprisoned.
The riot raged in Barcelona until Aug.
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On the last-named day began the attack upon the Juderia in Girona ; several Jews were robbed and killed; many sought safety in flight and a few in baptism. Several responses bearing on the widespread persecution of Spanish Jewry between the years and can be found in contemporary Jewish sources, such as in the Responsa of Rabbi Isaac ben Sheshet — , [41] and in the seminal writing of Gedaliah Ibn Yechia , Shalshelet Ha-Kabbalah written ca.
According to Don Hasdai Crescas, persecution against Jews began in earnest in Seville in , on the 1st day of the lunar month Tammuz June. The persecution was the immediate forerunner of the Inquisition, which, ninety years later, was introduced as a means of watching heresy and converted Jews. The Cortes of Madrid and that of Valladolid mainly busied themselves with complaints against the Jews, so that Henry III found it necessary to prohibit the latter from practising usury and to limit the commercial intercourse between Jews and Catholics; he also reduced by one-half the claims held by Jewish creditors against Catholics.
Indeed, the feeble and suffering king, the son of Leonora, who hated the Jews so deeply that she even refused to accept their money, showed no feelings of friendship toward them. At the Catholic preacher Ferrer's request a law consisting of twenty-four clauses, which had been drawn up by Paul de Burgos, a. The object of this law was to reduce the Jews to poverty and to further humiliate them.
They were prohibited from practising medicine, surgery, or chemistry pharmacy and from dealing in bread, wine, flour, meat, etc. They might not engage in handicrafts or trades of any kind, nor might they fill public offices, or act as money-brokers or agents. They were not allowed to hire Catholic servants, farmhands, lamplighters, or gravediggers; nor might they eat, drink, or bathe with Catholics, or hold intimate conversation have sexual relations with them, or visit them, or give them presents. Catholic women, married or unmarried, were forbidden to enter the Juderia either by day or by night.
The Jews were allowed no self-jurisdiction whatever, nor might they, without royal permission, levy taxes for communal purposes; they might not assume the title of "Don", carry arms, or trim beard or hair. Jewish women were required to wear plain, long mantles of coarse material reaching to the feet; and it was strictly forbidden for Jews to wear garments made of better material.
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The persecution of the Jews was now pursued systematically. By this bull Jews and neophytes were forbidden to study the Talmud, to read anti-Catholic writings, in particular the work "Macellum" "Mar Jesu" , to pronounce the names of Jesus, Maria, or the saints, to manufacture communion-cups or other church vessels or accept such as pledges, or to build new synagogues or ornament old ones. Each community might have only one synagogue.
Jews were denied all rights of selfjurisdiction, nor might they proceed against "malsines" accusers. They might hold no public offices, nor might they follow any handicrafts, or act as brokers, matrimonial agents, physicians, apothecaries, or druggists. They were forbidden to bake or sell matzot , or to give them away; neither might they dispose of meat which they were prohibited from eating.
They might have no intercourse sex with Catholics, nor might they disinherit their baptized children.
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They should wear the badge at all times, and thrice a year all Jews over twelve, of both sexes, were required to listen to a Catholic sermon. As soon as the Catholic monarchs Ferdinand and Isabella ascended their respective thrones, steps were taken to segregate the Jews both from the "conversos" and from their fellow countrymen. At the Cortes of Toledo, in , all Jews were ordered to be separated in special "barrios", and at the Cortes of Fraga, two years later, the same law was enforced in Navarre, where they were ordered to be confined to the Jewries at night.
The same year saw the establishment of the Inquisition in Spain, the main object of which was to deal with the "conversos". One of the reasons for the increased rigor of the Catholic monarchs was the disappearance of the fear of any united action by Jews and Moors, the kingdom of Granada being at its last gasp. The rulers did, however, promise the Jews of the Moorish kingdom that they could continue to enjoy their existing rights in exchange for aiding the Spaniards in overthrowing the Moors.
This promise dated February 11, , was repudiated, however, by the decree of expulsion. See Ferdinand and Isabella. It ordered all Jews of whatever age to leave the kingdom by the last day of July one day before Tisha B'Av [51]. They were permitted to take their property provided it was not in gold, silver, or money. The reason alleged for this action in the preamble of the edict was the relapse of so many "conversos", owing to the proximity of unconverted Jews who seduced them from Christianity and kept alive in them the knowledge and practices of Judaism.
It is said also that Ferdinand hesitated, but was prevented from accepting the offer by Torquemada , the grand inquisitor, who dashed into the royal presence and, throwing a crucifix down before the king and queen a type of action a good Christian should have never done , asked whether, like Judas, they would betray their Lord for money.
Torquemada was reported being from a 'converse' ancestry, and the confessor of Isabella, Espina, being previously a Rabin. Whatever may be the truth of this story, there were no signs of relaxation shown by the court, and the Jews of Spain made preparations for exile. In some cases, as at Vitoria , they took steps to prevent the desecration of the graves of their kindred by presenting the cemetery to the municipality — a precaution not unjustified, as the Jewish cemetery of Seville was later ravaged by the people.
The members of the Jewish community of Segovia passed the last three days of their stay in the city in the Jewish cemetery, fasting and wailing over being parted from their beloved dead. The number of Jews exiled from Spain is subject to controversy, with highly exaggerated figures provided by early observers and historians offering figures which numbered the hundreds of thousands.
By the time of the expulsion, little more than , practicing Jews remained in Spain, the majority having already converted to Catholicism. Jewish expulsion is a well established trend in European history. From the 13th to the 16th centuries, at least 15 occasions of European countries expelling their Jewish populations occurred.
The expulsion in Spain was preceded by England, France and Germany, among many others, and succeeded by at least five more expulsions. The history of the Jews henceforth in Spain is that of the conversos , whose numbers, as has been shown, had been increased by no less than 50, during the period of expulsion to a total of maybe , For three centuries after expulsion, Spanish Conversos were subject to suspicion by the Spanish Inquisition which executed over people in the period on charges of heresy including Judaism among other.
They were also subject to more general discriminatory laws of known as "limpieza de sangre" which required Spaniards to demonstrate "old Christian" background in order to access certain positions of authority. During this period hundreds of conversos escaped to nearby countries such as England, France and the Netherlands, converted back to Judaism, thus becoming part of the communities of Western Sephardim or Spanish and Portuguese Jews.
Conversos played an important leadership role in the Revolt of the Comuneros , a popular revolt and Civil War centered in the region of Castile against the imperial pretensions of the Spanish monarchy. Small numbers of Jews started to arrive in Spain in the 19th century, and synagogues were opened in Madrid. In the 15th century, among the first send to stake by Inquisition in Seville was the Hebrew Yusif Franco, later, a poorly conducted trial was acknowledged. Spanish historians started to take an interest in the Sephardim and Ladino , their language. Spain's rediscovery of the Jews of Northern Morocco who still conserved Spanish language and customs was instrumental in ending Antisemitism among its ruling classes.
The government of Miguel Primo de Rivera — decreed the right to Spanish citizenship of Sephardim. During the Spanish Civil War — , the synagogues were closed and post-war worship was kept in private homes. Jewish public life resumed in with the arrival of Jews from Europe and North Africa. In the first years of the World War II, "Laws regulating their admittance were written and mostly ignored. Trudi Alexy refers to the "absurdity" and "paradox of refugees fleeing the Nazis' Final Solution to seek asylum in a country where no Jews had been allowed to live openly as Jews for over four centuries.
Jews claiming Spanish ancestry were provided with Spanish documentation without being required to prove their case and either left for Spain or survived the war with the help of their new legal status in occupied countries. Diplomats discussed the possibility of Spain as a route to a containment camp for Jewish refugees near Casablanca but it came to naught due to lack of Free French and British support.
Almost all of them survived the war. Shortly afterwards, Spain began giving citizenship to Sephardic Jews in Greece , Hungary , Bulgaria , and Romania ; many Ashkenazic Jews also managed to be included, as did some non-Jews. The Spanish diplomatic corps was performing a balancing act: Alexy conjectures that the number of Jews they took in was limited by how much German hostility they were willing to engender.
Toward the war's end, Sanz Briz had to flee Budapest, leaving these Jews open to arrest and deportation.
An Italian diplomat, Giorgio Perlasca , who was himself living under Spanish protection, used forged documents to persuade the Hungarian authorities that he was the new Spanish Ambassador. Although Spain effectively undertook more to help Jews escape deportation to the concentration camps than most neutral countries did, [65] [66] there has been debate about Spain's wartime attitude towards refugees.
Franco's regime, despite its aversion to Zionism and "Judeo-Marxist"- Freemasonry conspiracy, does not appear to have shared the rabid anti-Semitic ideology promoted by the Nazis. About 25, to 35, refugees, mainly Jews, were allowed to transit through Spain to Portugal and beyond. Some historians argue that these facts demonstrate a humane attitude by Franco's regime, while others point out that the regime only permitted Jewish transit through Spain.
After the list of six thousand names was compiled, Romani was appointed Spain's ambassador to Germany, enabling him to deliver it personally to Himmler. Following the defeat of Germany in , the Spanish government attempted to destroy all evidence of cooperation with the Nazis, but this official order survived. At around the same time, synagogues were opened and the communities could hold a discreet degree of activity.
In , the two wealthiest women in Spain were the Koplowitz sisters, born from an Hebrew coming from Poland in , and having support from Alvarez Areces, founder of: The Alhambra Decree that had expelled the Jews was formally rescinded on December 16, During the Spanish transition to democracy , the recognition of Israel was one of the issues of modernization. The Democratic Center Union governments were divided. Kabbalah er en av de eldste mysterietradisjoner i veste Tozer ; Al Et Al. Selected and with an introduction and notes by A. The purpose of this book is to bring together in one convenient volume some of the best devotional verse the English language affords, and thus to make available to present day Christians a rich spiritual heritage which the greater number of them for various reasons do not now enjoy.
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