Guide A Handbook of the Fungus Diseases of West Indian Plants

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• A handbook of the fungus diseases of West Indian plants

Molecular techniques have been used to estimate genetic distances among different wheat cultivars. With the genetic distances known predictions can be made for the best combinations concerning the two foreign genotypes carrying gene Lr37, VPMI and RL and local South African cultivars. This is especially important in wheat with its low genetic variation. The gene will also be transferred with the least amount of backcrosses to cultivars genetically closest to each other, generation similar genetic offspring to the recurrent parent, but with gene Lr37, Genetic distances between near isogenic lines NILs for a particular gene will also give an indication of how many loci, amplified with molecular techniques, need to be compared in order to locate putative markers linked to the gene.

Fungal names are important. These are the keys to all information behind them.

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Then, an appropriate name can lead users to the right information. In the case of plant pathogenic fungi using an appropriate name is more important because of practical reasons. There are several examples among rust fungi of one species called with different names during different eras. This species has been called by at least six different names since , when G. Winter described the Puccinia rubigo-vera. Later, Eriksoon and Henning put it under the P.

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In and after some experiments Eriksson concluded that the rust should be considered as a separate authentic species. For this reason he described P. This name was used by Gaeumann [2] in his comprehensive book about rust fungi of middle Europe. Mains was among the first scientists who used a species name with broad species concept for WLR.

They considered the same broad species concept and also discussed the validity of P. Finally, they introduced P. British Rust Flora.

Wilson and Henderson [4] also used a broad species concept for P. The accepted name for WLR in their flora was P. Cummins in his rust monograph for Poaceae introduced an ultra-broad species concept for P.

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There was another stream opposite to broad morphologically-based concept among uredinologists. In the case of graminicolous rust fungi this stream was started by Urban who introduced P. Savile was also among the uredinologists believing in narrowing the species concept and considered P. Finally he considered WLR as a part of Puccinia persistens species with aecial stage on Ranunculaceae members, totally different from P.

His final name for this rust was P. Life cycle: Wheat leaf rust spreads via airborne spores. Five types of spores are formed in the life cycle: Urediniospores , teliospores , and basidiospores develop on wheat plants and pycniospores and aeciospores develop on the alternate hosts. Before sporulation, wheat plants appear completely asymptomatic. In order to complete its sexual life cycle P.

In places where Thalictrum does not grow, such as Australia, the pathogen will only undergo its asexual life cycle and will overwinter as mycelium or uredinia. After around 10—14 days of infection, the fungi will begin to sporulate and the symptoms will become visible on the wheat leaves. Location is an important characteristic in the spread of wheat rust. Some places wheat rust can easily flourish and spread. In other areas, the environment is marginally suited for the disease. Urediniospores of the wheat rusts initiate germination within one to three hours of contact with free moisture over a range of temperatures depending on the rust.

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Urediniospores are produced in large numbers and can be blown considerable distances by the wind, but most urediniospores are deposited close to their source under the influence of gravity. Urediniospores are relatively resilient and can survive in the field away from host plants for periods of several weeks. They can withstand freezing if their moisture content is lowered to 20 to 30 percent.

Viability rapidly decreases at moisture contents of more than 50 percent. Long-distance spread of urediniospores is influenced by wind patterns and the orientation of the spore to latitude. In general, spores move west to east due to the winds resulting from the rotation of the earth. At progressively higher latitudes, winds tend to take a more southerly component in the Northern Hemisphere and a northerly component in the Southern Hemisphere. Stubbs, [12] Chester [13]. This is why the destruction of the alternate hosts are key to control.

Early-maturing cultivars as well as spring wheat should be sown as early as possible to avoid peak rust periods. Bhardwah, [14] Huerta-Espino. J, [15] Yehuda [16]. Symptomless but infected suckers or rhizomes can transmit the disease when planted in a new area. Infected planting material is often responsible for the local, national and international spread of the disease.

Certified tissue-culture plantlets should be free of the fungus and would not contribute to the spread of the disease. Staff and visitors to a banana plantation have the potential of moving the fungus in or out through infested soil attached to vehicles, tools and shoes. Untreated soil used as a potting medium can transmit the fungus and animals can also move around fungal spores present in soil. Spores can be carried in surface run-off water.

They can also contaminate irrigation reservoirs. It is said that in China pumping water from sources contminated with TR4 spores contributed to the spread of the Fusarium wilt in plantations of Cavendish bananas [4]. The fungus cannot be controlled using fungicides and cannot be eradicated from soil using fumigants. Drainage, environmental conditions and soil type influence host-pathogen interactions. However, the chemical, biological and physical factors responsible for this phenomenon are not well understood.

The solution best adapted to the continued production of bananas in infested soils is replacing susceptible cultivars with resistant ones. Gros Michel , Silk , Pome and Pisang awak cultivars are generally resistant to race 2 strains but susceptible to races 1 and 4 strains. Cavendish cultivars are generally resistant to races 1 and 2 strains but susceptible to race 4 strains.

Most of the ITC accessions screened displayed little or no sign of Fusarium wilt [7]. It is possible that the wrong accession was introduced to the ITC. Two of the evaluated lines were still free of the disease after three years of a field trial conducted in the Northern Territory [12]. Fusarium wilt is responsible for the demise of the export trade based on Gros Michel. By the turn of the 20th century Gros Michel was exported from the Caribbean and Central America, where large-scale plantations were carved out of virgin rainforest. The first losses followed soon after Fusarium wilt was reported in Panama and Costa Rica in the s the strains that cause disease on Gros Michel would later become known as race 1.

Only the availability of vast areas of virgin land prevented an early collapse of the industry. The opening of new land to make up for the abandoned plantations estimated at more than 40, ha [13] allowed production to keep ahead of the disease. But as uninfected and accessible land became increasingly rare in the the mids, production costs in Central America soared.

Even though resistant cultivars had been identified as early as , the export industry did not begin to replace the susceptible Gros Michel banana until the late s [13]. The change was motivated by the entry of Ecuador as a major banana exporter in the s [14]. To compete with the cheap Gros Michel from Ecuador, the infested soils of Central America were planted with resistant Cavendish cultivars. Gros Michel has not completely disappeared, however. It is still grown by smallholder farmers, in backyard gardens and mixed crop systems. Race 1 also had an impact on the cultivation of Silk, Pome and Pisang Awak cultivars, while race 2 reduced the cultivation of Bluggoe, especially in Latin America.

African banana farmers have been less affected by Fusarium wilt given how African Plantains and East African highland bananas are largely resistant to race 1 strains. Meanwhile, the emergence of TR4 started affecting commercial plantations of Cavendish cultivars. In the s, Taiwan had about 50, hectares of banana plantations and was the major banana exporter to Japan. By the early s, it had about 6, ha left in cultivation [15].

In Indonesia and Malaysia, the arrival of TR4 in the early s destroyed recently established export plantations within a few years [15].