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Hearing this, people who lived along the road came running, leaving homes and work. Delighted to behold the embodiments of love, all obtained their births' reward. Shiva's heart was greatly agitated but Sati did not perceive his secret. Tulsi says, he craved sight of the Lord; his mind hesitated but his eyes were greedy.
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Thus "24c" refers to the third of a series of couplets at the end of stanza twenty-four. The use of the caupai-doha stanza as the basic structural unit for a poetic narrative was not original to Tulsidas but appears to have had a long history in the North Indian vernaculars. In Avadhi itself—the dia-. Sharan prefers this approach. As a consequence of this convention, invocatory dohas will be designated by a "zero" 0 in notation; thus "2. A third meter that occurs with fair frequency in the Manas is harigitika chand —"meter of short songs to Vishnu"; this is generally shortened to chand in notation.
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Verses in this meter seem to be inserted at moments of heightened emotion and serve to elaborate on something that has already been described rather than to advance the flow of the narrative, for which the more prosaic caupai is preferred. A chand comprises four equal lines of twenty-six to thirty beats.
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The final syllables in each line rhyme and there is often internal rhyme within lines; the rhyme scheme, combined with the frequent use of alliteration, gives this meter an especially rhythmic and musical quality. Appropriately, it is the chands among all the verses of the Manas that are most often set to melodies and sung as devotional hymns. The first two lines of this chand read:.
In his translation F. Growse attempted to simulate the rhyme scheme of some of these musical verses; for the above lines he offered:. At the touch so sweet of his hallowed feet, she awoke from her long unrest, and meekly adored her sovereign lord, awaiting his high behest. Whatever the aesthetic merits of this approach, it necessitated taking considerable liberties with the text; a more literal translation would be:. At the touch of his holy feet, which destroys grief, that treasury of asceticism became manifest.
Beholding Ram, who delights his devotees, she stood before him with palms joined. They include invocatory, Sanskrit slokas , which open each book and close the final one, and occasional hymns of praise stuti spoken by characters—learned Brahmans or sages—who might be expected to address the Lord in Sanskrit; several of these are widely used in worship today.
These appear to reflect the conventions and constraints of oral storytelling and sequential recitation. One other convention deserves note, for it is used frequently in all the recurring "ornamental" meters of the epic: the bhanita , or signature of the poet. This usually consists of the word "Tulsi" or "Tulsidas" placed in a line in such a way that it must be construed to mean "Tulsidas says. Although such a signature was a convention in medieval lyric poetry that added an element of personal witness to the verses, within the epic scope of the Manas it was adapted to serve an additional purpose: to remind the.
This design and its significance must now be briefly examined. Recent studies in sociolinguistics and in the rhetorical approach to literary criticism have drawn attention to the technique of "framing"—the framing of communication in general and verbal art in particular. This concept has been developed and applied by linguists and anthropologists and most recently by folklorists interested in the study of "verbal art as performance"—to cite the title of an essay by Richard Bauman that makes a valuable contribution to performance theory.
Drawing on the work of Gregory Bateson, Bauman notes,. It is characteristic of communicative interaction that it includes a range of explicit or implicit messages which carry instructions on how to interpret the other messages being communicated. This communication about communication Bateson termed metacommunication. In Bateson's terms, "a frame is metacommunicative.
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Any message which either explicitly or implicitly defines a frame ipso facto gives the reader instructions or aids in his attempt to understand the messages included within the frame. The theme of the present study is the presentation of a literary work to its audience, and the metacommunicative strategies employed by oral performers to "frame" the Manas are discussed in due course.
Such framing, I suggest, is not simply a literary convention but a cue to the intended use of the text in cultural performances. Two explicit frames are built into the structure of the Manas ; each has implicit dimensions that may not be readily apparent to readers of a different cultural background. The first is the title itself, which is introduced in the thirty-fifth stanza and then developed into a complex allegory comprising more than a hundred lines.
I identify this frame as "first. Hill's English rendering, "The Holy Lake of the Acts of Ram," though unexceptionable, inevitably fails to convey the mythological associations that the title evokes for the North Indian listener.
The name Ram , no doubt the poet's own dearest element in the title—his mantra, or spiritually efficacious word par excellence—needs little elaboration here; not merely the name of the hero of the narrative, it was to Tulsi and his fellow devotees the personal designation of the supreme godhead. I venerate "Ram," the name of Raghubar, the cause of fire, sun, and moon. Breath of the Veda, filled with Brahma, Vishnu, Shiva, incomparable, qualityless; treasury of all qualifies.
The Great Mantra that Shiva repeats and his instruction, giving liberation in Kashi. The Sanskrit word carita from the verbal root car, "to move" is a perfect participle connoting "going, moving, course as of heavenly bodies," and by extension, "acts, deeds, adventures. Yet carit is not random movement but expresses the inherent qualities of the mover; in Sanskrit literature the word has been used in the titles of biographies of religious figures and idealized kings e. A Manas scholar in Banaras once expressed the meaning of carit with an analogy to geometry: a car is a moving point and its carit the circle it inscribes—the track or orbit that records its passage.
In this interpretation, Ram is the moving point of the infinite that passes through our world, the track of his passage being delineated by his carit.
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For Tulsidas, this was an appropriate term to describe the earthly activities of one whom he revered as the incarnation of God. Manas is derived from the root man —"to think, believe, imagine, perceive, comprehend. Tulsi helped popularize the belief that it is by virtue of the power of Ram's name, which Shiva whispers in the ear of anyone who dies in Kashi Banaras , that liberation from further rebirth is assured. Used as a proper noun, this is the name of a remote Himalayan lake, situated on the Tibetan plateau at the foot of Mount Kailash, the abode of Shiva.
The Manas , then, is the "Holy Lake" of Hill's translation: a profound reservoir gleaming at the foot of towering white peaks. Tulsi attibutes the origin of the narrative and its title to Shiva himself. Shiva formed this and placed it in his heart.
Upon contemplation, the excellent name, Ramcaritmanas , he joyfully gave it. He then begins his allegory, first situating the mystical lake in the "soil of good intelligence" in the depths of the heart, and the source of its water in the boundless ocean of scripture—the revealed Vedas and the Puranic "old stories" 1. The saints are likened to clouds? The Valmiki text states that the river Sarayu, which flows through Ayodhya, arises from this lake 1. See Bhatt and Shah, eds. For a modern account of the pilgrimage, see Hamsa, The Holy Mountain.
The four lovely and excellent dialogues, shaped by lucid contemplation, are the four charming ghats of this holy and auspicious lake. The word "dialogues" samvad refers to the other explicit set of frames, which will be discussed shortly: the narrating of the Manas as a series of interwoven conversations; these form the banks of this lake of Ram's glory. The poem's seven books are called "stairways" or "descents" sopan , leading down the ghats into the water, while its meters are the lotus leaves and flowers that cover the water's surface 1. Living creatures are added to the picture—the "bees of good deeds," which sip the nectar of the lotus verses; the "swans" of wisdom and detachment, and the "fish" of various poetic devices and moods, which dart about below the water's surface 1.
Surrounding the lake is a forest of mango trees—"the assembly of devotees"—and the faith of these good people is the spring season, which ever reigns there 1. Thus the poet introduces into his landscape the potential audience of his poem. Those who diligently sing these acts are the skilled guardians of this lake. Men and women, ever listening with reverence, are the fortunate gods, masters of this Manas.
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Similarly, lustful and vindictive people are said to be like crows and storks the former impure, the latter scheming, according to the Hindu bestiary , but the lake holds no attraction for them, as it is free of the "snails, frogs, and scum" of sensual stories 1. Should they ever get a glimpse of it—which is all but impossible, since access is blocked by "straying paths of bad company" and "towering peaks of domestic cares" 1.
All these obstacles cannot obstruct one on whom Ram has looked with grace. Such a one bathes reverently in the lake and the three terrible fires cannot scorch him. Brother, let him who yearns to bathe in this lake diligently cultivate the company of the holy! The poet then describes how. Later it joins the "Ganga of devotion to Ram" and the mighty Son, signifying "the fame of Ram and his brother in battle," until the many merged streams flow into "the ocean of Ram's inherent being" 1.
Succeeding stanzas further expand the allegory, likening the major episodes of the narrative to various features of the river and its banks, and to the appearance of the river in each of the six seasons of the North Indian year 1. The imagery of the Manas Lake and its ghats is not confined to this introductory passage but is reaffirmed periodically throughout the poem.