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Table of contents

Combinations that contain high amounts of all the essential amino acids include rice and beans , corn and beans, and hummus and whole-wheat pita. Soy beans and quinoa are known as complete proteins because they each contain all the essential amino acids in amounts that meet or exceed human requirements. The American Dietetic Association said in that a variety of plant foods consumed over the course of a day can provide all the essential amino acids for healthy adults, which means that protein combining in the same meal is generally not necessary.

Vitamin B 12 is a bacterial product needed for cell division , the formation and maturation of red blood cells , the synthesis of DNA , and normal nerve function. A deficiency may cause megaloblastic anaemia and neurological damage, and, if untreated, may lead to death. Vegans should take preventive measures to ensure adequate intake of this vitamin, including regular consumption of supplements containing B B 12 is produced in nature only by certain bacteria and archaea ; it is not made by any animal, fungus, or plant. Animals store vitamin B 12 in liver and muscle and some pass the vitamin into their eggs and milk; meat, liver, eggs and milk are therefore sources of B It has been suggested that nori an edible seaweed , tempeh a fermented soybean food , and nutritional yeast may be sources of vitamin B Otherwise, vitamin B 12 deficiency may develop, as has been demonstrated in case studies of vegan infants, children, and adults.

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Vitamin B 12 is mostly manufactured by industrial fermentation of various kinds of bacteria, which make forms of cyanocobalamin , which are further processed to generate the ingredient included in supplements and fortified foods. To increase vitamin production, it is supplemented with sugar beet molasses, or, less frequently, with choline. Calcium is needed to maintain bone health and for several metabolic functions, including muscle function , vascular contraction and vasodilation , nerve transmission, intracellular signalling , and hormonal secretion.

Ninety-nine percent of the body's calcium is stored in the bones and teeth. A report based on the Oxford cohort of the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition , which began in , suggested that vegans have an increased risk of bone fractures over meat eaters and vegetarians, likely because of lower dietary calcium intake. Vitamin D calciferol is needed for several functions, including calcium absorption, enabling mineralization of bone, and bone growth.

Without it bones can become thin and brittle; together with calcium it offers protection against osteoporosis. Vitamin D is produced in the body when ultraviolet rays from the sun hit the skin; outdoor exposure is needed because UVB radiation does not penetrate glass. It is present in salmon , tuna , mackerel and cod liver oil , with small amounts in cheese, egg yolks, and beef liver, and in some mushrooms. Most vegan diets contain little or no vitamin D without fortified food.

People with little sun exposure may need supplements. The extent to which sun exposure is sufficient depends on the season, time of day, cloud and smog cover, skin melanin content, and whether sunscreen is worn. According to the National Institutes of Health , most people can obtain and store sufficient vitamin D from sunlight in the spring, summer, and fall, even in the far north.

They report that some researchers recommend 5—30 minutes of sun exposure without sunscreen between 10 am and 3 pm, at least twice a week. Vitamin D comes in two forms. Cholecalciferol vitamin D 3 is synthesized in the skin after exposure to the sun or consumed from food, usually from animal sources. Ergocalciferol vitamin D 2 is derived from ergosterol from UV-exposed mushrooms or yeast and is suitable for vegans.

When produced industrially as supplements, vitamin D 3 is typically derived from lanolin in sheep's wool. However, both provitamins and vitamins D 2 and D 3 have been discovered in Cladina spp. In some cases iron and the zinc status of vegans may also be of concern because of the limited bioavailability of these minerals. High-iron vegan foods include soybeans , blackstrap molasses , black beans, lentils , chickpeas , spinach , tempeh , tofu , and lima beans.

Health matters

Coffee and some herbal teas can inhibit iron absorption, as can spices that contain tannins such as turmeric , coriander , chiles, and tamarind. Alpha-linolenic acid ALA , an omega-3 fatty acid, is found in walnuts , seeds, and vegetable oils, such as canola and flaxseed oil. As of [update] , few studies were rigorous in their comparison of omnivore , vegetarian, and vegan diets, making it difficult to discern whether health benefits attributed to veganism might also apply to vegetarian diets or diets that include moderate meat intake.

In preliminary clinical research , vegan diets lowered the risk of type 2 diabetes , high blood pressure , obesity , and ischemic heart disease. Eliminating all animal products may increase the risk of deficiencies of vitamins B 12 and D , calcium, and omega-3 fatty acids.


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The American Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics and Dietitians of Canada state that properly planned vegan diets are appropriate for all life stages, including pregnancy and lactation. The German Society for Nutrition does not recommend a vegan diet for babies, children and adolescents, or for women pregnant or breastfeeding. They may also reduce the number of medications needed to treat chronic diseases and lower ischemic heart disease mortality rates.

The Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics and Dietitians of Canada consider well-planned vegetarian and vegan diets "appropriate for individuals during all stages of the lifecycle, including pregnancy, lactation, infancy, childhood, and adolescence, and for athletes". It is recommended that attention should be given to nutrient intake, particularly protein, vitamins B 12 and D, essential fatty acids, iron, zinc, and calcium. According to a systematic review , there is little evidence available about vegetarian and vegan diets during pregnancy, and a lack of randomized studies meant that the effects of diet could not be distinguished from confounding factors.

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Researchers have reported cases of vitamin B 12 deficiency in lactating vegetarian mothers that were linked to deficiencies and neurological disorders in their children. Vegan diets have attracted negative attention from the media because of cases of nutritional deficiencies that have come to the attention of the courts, including the death of a baby in New Zealand in due to hypocobalaminemia , i. Vegans replace personal care products and household cleaners containing animal products with products that are vegan, such as vegan dental floss made of bamboo fiber.

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Animal ingredients are ubiquitous because they are relatively inexpensive. After animals are slaughtered for meat, the leftovers are put through a rendering process and some of that material, particularly the fat, is used in toiletries. Common animal-derived ingredients include: tallow in soap; collagen -derived glycerine , which used as a lubricant and humectant in many haircare products, moisturizers, shaving foams, soaps and toothpastes; [] lanolin from sheep's wool is often found in lip balm and moisturizers; stearic acid is a common ingredient in face creams, shaving foam and shampoos, as with glycerine, it can be plant-based, but is usually animal-derived ; Lactic acid , an alpha-hydroxy acid derived from animal milk, is used in moisturizers; allantoin — from the comfrey plant or cows' urine —is found in shampoos, moisturizers and toothpaste; [] and carmine from scale insects , such as the female cochineal , is used in food and cosmetics to produce red and pink shades; [] [].

PETA bunny : certified vegan, no animal testing. The British Vegan Society's sunflower logo and PETA's bunny logo mean the product is certified vegan, which includes no animal testing. The Leaping Bunny logo signals no animal testing, but it might not be vegan. Beauty Without Cruelty , founded as a charity in , was one of the earliest manufacturers and certifiers of animal-free personal care products.


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    7. Vegans avoid clothing that incorporates silk, wool including lambswool , shearling , cashmere , angora , mohair , and a number of other fine wools , fur, feathers, pearls, animal-derived dyes, leather, snakeskin, and any other kind of skin or animal product. Most leather clothing is made from cow skins. Vegans regard the purchase of leather, particularly from cows, as financial support for the meat industry. Ethical veganism, also known as moral vegetarianism, is based on opposition to speciesism , the assignment of value to individuals on the basis of animal species membership alone.

    Divisions within animal rights theory include the utilitarian , protectionist approach, which pursues improved conditions for animals. It also pertains to the rights-based abolitionism , which seeks to end human ownership of non-humans, including as pets. Abolitionists argue that protectionism serves only to make the public feel that animal use can be morally unproblematic the "happy meat" position. Donald Watson , the first vegan activist and founder of The Vegan Society , stated in response to a question on why he was an ethical vegan, "If an open-minded, honest person pursues a course long enough, and listens to all the criticisms, and in one's own mind can satisfactorily meet all the criticisms against that idea, sooner or later one's resistance against what one sees as evil tradition has to be discarded.

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    Alex Hershaft , co-founder of the Farm Animal Rights Movement and Holocaust survivor , states he "was always bothered by the idea of hitting a beautiful, living, innocent animal over the head, cutting him up into pieces, then shoving the pieces into [his] mouth," and that his experiences in the Nazi Holocaust allowed him "to emphasize with the conditions of animals in factory farms, auction yards, and slaughterhouses" because he "knows firsthand what it's like to be treated like a worthless object. Law professor Gary Francione , an abolitionist, argues that all sentient beings should have the right not to be treated as property, and that adopting veganism must be the baseline for anyone who believes that non-humans have intrinsic moral value.

    The right of subjects-of-a-life not to be harmed can be overridden by other moral principles, but Regan argues that pleasure, convenience and the economic interests of farmers are not weighty enough. An argument proposed by Bruce Friedrich , also a protectionist, holds that strict adherence to veganism harms animals, because it focuses on personal purity, rather than encouraging people to give up whatever animal products they can. By failing to ask a server whether something contains animal products, we reinforce that the moral rights of animals are a matter of convenience, he argues.

    He concludes from this that the protectionist position fails on its own consequentialist terms. Ethical vegans want to admit non-humans into the category that deserves special protection, rather than recognize the "ecological embeddedness" of all. Or, as Farlie puts it, with characteristic panache : 'to conclude that veganism is the "only ethical response" is to take a big leap into a very muddy pond'.

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    David Pearce , a transhumanist philosopher, has argued that humanity has a "hedonistic imperative" to not merely avoid cruelty to animals or abolish the ownership of non-human animals, but also to redesign the global ecosystem such that wild animal suffering ceases to exist. Fertility regulation could maintain herbivore populations at sustainable levels, "a more civilised and compassionate policy option than famine, predation, and disease".

    A growing political philosophy that incorporates veganism as part of its revolutionary praxis is veganarchism , which seeks "total abolition" or " total liberation " for all animals, including humans. Veganarchists identify the state as unnecessary and harmful to animals, both human and non-human, and advocate for the adoption of a vegan lifestyle within a stateless society. The term was popularized in with Brian A. Dominick's pamphlet Animal Liberation and Social Revolution , described as "a vegan perspective on anarchism or an anarchist perspective on veganism". Steven Best , animal rights activist and professor of philosophy at the University of Texas at El Paso , is an advocate of this approach, and has been critical of vegan activists like Francione for supporting animal liberation, but not total liberation, which would include not only opposition to "the property status of animals", but also "a serious critique of capitalism, the state, property relations, and commodification dynamics in general.

    Some vegans also embrace the philosophy of anti-natalism , as they see the two as complementary in terms of "harm reduction" to animals and the environment. The Vegan Society has written, "by extension, [veganism] promotes the development and use of animal-free alternatives for the benefit of humans. And, if we couldn't, we have no right to expect them to do it on our behalf.

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    Full stop! That simply compounds the issue. It means that we're not just exploiting animals; we're exploiting human beings. Environmental vegans focus on conservation , rejecting the use of animal products on the premise that fishing, hunting, trapping and farming, particularly factory farming , are environmentally unsustainable. In , Paul Watson of the Sea Shepherd Conservation Society called pigs and chicken "major aquatic predators", because livestock eat 40 percent of the fish that are caught.

    This specific form of veganism focuses its way of living on how to have a sustainable way of life without consuming animals. A UN report, Assessing the Environmental Impacts of Consumption and Production , argued that animal products "in general require more resources and cause higher emissions than plant-based alternatives". One of the leading activists and scholars of feminist animal rights is Carol J.

    Her premier work, The Sexual Politics of Meat: A Feminist-Vegetarian Critical Theory , sparked what was to become a movement in animal rights as she noted the relationship between feminism and meat consumption. Since the release of The Sexual Politics of Meat , Adams has published several other works including essays, books, and keynote addresses.

    In one of her speeches, "Why feminist-vegan now? Other authors have also paralleled Adams' ideas while expanding on them. Next are the fish. According to FishBase, a comprehensive online database on fish species, there are 33, species of fish in the world. New research led by the American Museum of Natural History suggests there are about 18, bird species in the world [ii] , offering much more for our menu than mere mammals. Descended from dinosaurs, birds are characterized by their coats of feathers, their warm-blooded metabolisms, and their ability to adapt to a wide range of habitats — as seen with the ostriches of Australia and the penguins of Antarctica.

    A myriad of mammal species once roamed the surface of this planet, creating a wonderful tapestry of life that covered every continent. Now, as a result of both the worst species extinction crisis since the demise of the dinosaurs and the rapid expansion of industrialized agriculture, 96 percent of the mammals present on earth today are livestock and the humans who eat them.