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Interpreting classical ghazal poetry also entailed transcending basic meanings to arrive at more complex, sophisticated meanings.


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What do classical ghazals have to say about location or their locatedness? Not much. Firstly, the metaphors, tropes, characters, and subplots of the ghazal are often so highly conventionalized that the poetic practice is primarily concerned with recasting and refining established poetic principles rather than representing the reality of its particular author. There, the nightingale with its thousand tunes appears in spring; here, the koyal and the papiha. The writers of Braj Bhasha depict the pleasures and moods of the rainy season extremely well. While in ghazal practice we do not have representations of material location or space, we do have a rather philosophical and mystical discussion of absence.

Similarities Between Persian and Marathi

Again, this becomes important for how modern writers would recast these themes of mystical longing into distinctly national registers in both Urdu and English-language criticism. While there was no single interpretive mode for classical ghazal poetry in the early discussions of world literature, some broad patterns are certainly worth noting. Modern usage of the term genius is often forgetful of the fact that this term originated from the classical Latin notion of genius loci , understood as the guardian spirit of a place.

Unsurprisingly, a fair number of essays on poetry written from the early eighteenth century routinely draw on descriptions of natural terrain and topography as the primary indicators of national essence. Life in the East is fierce, short, hazardous, and in extremes.

Its elements are few and simple, not exhibiting the long range and undulation of European existence, but rapidly reaching the best and the worst … All or nothing is the genius of Oriental life … The prolific sun and the sudden and rank plenty which his heat engenders, make subsistence easy. On the other side, the desert, the simoon, the mirage, the lion and the plague endanger it, and life hangs on the contingency of a skin of water more or less.

Nature kills egotism and conceit; deals strictly with us; and gives us sanity; so that it was the practice of Orientals, especially of the Persians, to let insane persons wander at their own will out of towns, into the desert, and, if they liked, to associate with wild beasts, especially gazelles, collect around an insane person, and live with him on a friendly footing. What Emerson cites as a practice of healing the insane sounds in fact rather much like the figure of Majnun from the Arabic love story of Majnun and his beloved Layla.

What is telling about this passage is how Emerson employs a poetic trope that was largely about unrequited love and exiled lovers to make a claim for the powerful effects of nature. Such, we might say, is the scholarly appeal of nature for Emerson that it can be used as a reorganizing principle to resituate and reshape cultural, and particularly poetic, material towards new kinds of historiography and spirituality. Emerson writes:. The term bard, of course, originates as a Gaelic designation for the professional caste of poets that composed and performed the oral histories of their respective communities across parts of current-day Scotland, Ireland, and Wales.

As Katie Trumpener explains in her book Bardic Nationalism: The Romantic Novel and the British Empire , the term became quite popular in the late eighteenth- and nineteenth-centuries to imagine all kinds of important poets who could be read as ambassadors of their respective national genius, as bardic figures.

Recharacterizing Hafiz as a bardic figure entailed refracting Persian poetry through ideals that amplified certain aspects of this literary history and obscured others. Numerous scholars of folk studies have sought to explain why antiquarian trends that especially valorized orality gained currency in the eighteenth-century, just as modes of authorship and literary reception were swiftly being reshaped by improved technologies of print and travel. If Persian was not a spoken language in India, how could Indo-Persian culture, including the Urdu ghazal tradition, be considered local or natural?

The naturalization of specific styles, authors, languages, and forms entailed an inverse denaturalization of others. It is in keeping with these trends in historiography that theories of fundamental cultural difference took on an alarming sectarianism in India. As a number of recent studies on Persian, Hindi, and Urdu poetry have demonstrated, modern writers working in these languages also revised and reorganized older literary materials towards new literary historiographies that imagined located communities and monolingual homelands. The fact that nineteenth-century European and American audiences could consume as folk literature the same Persian poems that had until recently circulated in Asia as cosmopolitan culture, and had done so for centuries, is striking but becomes less so when juxtaposed to comparable literary trends taking place in India and Persia.

A number of twentieth-century Urdu poets like Faiz Ahmad Faiz — and Muhammad Allama Iqbal — , and even the Kashmiri-American poet Agha Shahid Ali — , can be credited with making similar adaptations, though with varying poetic and political effect. In fact, this final point is crucial for noting the micro-shifts that poets, critics, and reformists made to classical Persian poetry so that it could be effectively rebranded as world literature. As I outlined in the first section of this article, the ghazal speaker often, if not usually, adopts a transgressive spiritual and religious attitude.

We might read such poetry as embodying individuality rather than conventionality.

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For example, Emerson writes:. Hafiz defies you to show him, or put him in a condition inopportune and ignoble. Take all you will and leave him but a corner of Nature, a lane, a den, a cow-shed, out of cities, far from letters and taste and culture, he promises to win to that scorned spot, the light of moon and stars, the love of men, the smile of beauty, the homage of art. His complete intellectual emancipation he communicates to the reader. There is no example of such facility of allusion, such use of all materials.

Nothing is too high, nothing too low for his occasion. He fears nothing, he stops for nothing. Love is a leveller, and Allah becomes a groom, and heaven a closet, in his daring hymns to his mistress or to his cupbearer.

Mughal Arcadia: Persian Poetry in an Indian Court

This boundless charter is the right of genius. Rather, it would be more accurate to say that such paradigms of mystic unorthodoxy claimed madness as a privileged and exclusive condition of exception, since, as Green notes,. To reconceptualize world literature according to improved and pluralized models of global imaginaries is, of course, necessary. On the one hand, to analyze classical ghazals in terms of located views of the world is complicated by the fact that this is quite contrary to the philosophical thrust of much of this poetic corpus.

As curious as this shift from a more mystically-inclined classical ghazal model to modern interpretations of these poems as Naturpoesie or folk poetry may be, I am not in favour of reading this transition as a mis translation or as the corruption of an otherwise long, uninterrupted tradition. In fact, this example should help soften our characterization of the classical ghazal as a form that was removed from social life. There are many reason to push back against such a hermetic portrait of the ghazal, one being that in practice ghazal couplets rarely signified a singular or fixed meaning and instead reflected philosophically on the different scenarios in which they were cited.

The conventionalized and highly metaphoric language of the classical ghazal was thus poised to take on new significance in light of its situational context but historically did so in accordance with a predetermined and gradually evolving system of hermeneutics. Azad, Muhammad Husain. Frances W.

The Influence of India and Persia on the Poetry of Germany

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