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BEGINNING. OF. THE. SEA. STORY. OF. AUSTRALIA. To many people in England the mention of Australia conjures pictures of tented gold-fields and tall.
Table of contents

Historian Bill Gammage estimates that on the eve of war, Australia had , men "under arms of some sort". Historian Humphrey McQueen has it that working and living conditions for Australia's working classes in the early 20th century were of "frugal comfort". The Harvester Judgment of recognised the concept of a basic wage and in the Federal government also began an old age pension scheme. Together with the White Australia Policy and pioneering social policy, these developments have since been dubbed the Australian settlement.

As a result of them, the new Commonwealth gained recognition as a laboratory for social experimentation and positive liberalism. Catastrophic droughts plagued some regions in the late s and early 20th century and together with a growing rabbit plague , created great hardship in the rural area of Australia. Despite this, a number of writers "imagined a time when Australia would outstrip Britain in wealth and importance, when its open spaces would support rolling acres of farms and factories to match those of the United States.

Some estimated the future population at million, million or more". Brady , whose book Australia Unlimited described Australia's inland as ripe for development and settlement, "destined one day to pulsate with life".

Australia’s Coral Sea Islands & Marine Park

With the encouragement of Queensland, in , a British protectorate had been proclaimed over the southern coast of New Guinea and its adjacent islands. British New Guinea , was annexed outright in The possession was placed under the authority of the newly federated Commonwealth of Australia in and with passage of the Papua Act of , British New Guinea became the Australian Territory of Papua , with formal Australian administration beginning in The world war marked a decisive moment in the history of Australia, remember to this day for the ANZAC story of the Army's sacrifices at Gallipoli, and the coming-of-age of a young nation.

The declaration of war by King George V in August automatically involved all of Britain's colonies and dominions. I sincerely hope that international arbitration will avail before Europe is convulsed in the greatest war of all time But should the worst happen Australians will stand beside our own to help and defend her to the last man and the last shilling. More than , Australian men volunteered to fight during the First World War between and [] from a total national population of 4.

After the Australian Imperial Forces AIF was withdrawn in late , and enlarged to five divisions, most were moved to France to serve under British command. Light horsemen of the 4th and 12th Regiments captured heavily fortified Beersheba from Turk forces by means of a cavalry charge at full gallop on 31 October One of the last great cavalry charges in history, the attack opened a way for the allies to outflank the Gaza-Beersheba Line and drive the Ottomans back into Palestine.

The AIF's first experience of warfare on the Western Front was also the most costly single encounter in Australian military history. In July , at Fromelles , in a diversionary attack during the Battle of the Somme , the AIF suffered 5, killed or wounded in 24 hours. Two bitterly fought and divisive conscription referendums were held in Australia in and Both failed, and Australia's army remained a volunteer force. John Monash was appointed corps commander of the Australian forces in May and led some significant attacks in the final stages of the war.


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British Field Marshal Montgomery later called him "the best general on the western front in Europe". Monash made the protection of infantry a priority and sought to fully integrate all the new technologies of warfare in both the planning and execution of battles, thus he wrote that infantry should not be sacrificed needlessly to enemy bayonets and machine guns—but rather should "advance under the maximum possible protection of the maximum possible array of mechanical resources, in the form of guns, machine-guns, tanks, mortars and aeroplanes".

His first operation at the relatively small Battle of Hamel demonstrated the validity of his approach and later actions before the Hindenburg Line in confirmed it. The 8th of August put the decline of [German] fighting power beyond all doubt".

Acknowledgement of Country

Over 60, Australians had died during the conflict and , were wounded, a high proportion of the , who had fought overseas. While the Gallipoli campaign was a total failure militarily and Australians died, its memory was all-important. Gallipoli transformed the Australian mind and became an iconic element of the Australian identity and the founding moment of nationhood.

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Bill Gammage has suggested that the choice of 25 April has always meant much to Australians because at Gallipoli, "the great machines of modern war were few enough to allow ordinary citizens to show what they could do". In France, between and , "where almost seven times as many Australians died At one point Hughes declared: "I speak for 60, [Australian] dead".


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    8. Hughes demanded that Australia have independent representation within the newly formed League of Nations and was the most prominent opponent of the inclusion of the Japanese racial equality proposal, which as a result of lobbying by him and others was not included in the final Treaty, deeply offending Japan. Hughes was concerned by the rise of Japan.

    History of Australia

    Though Japan occupied German possessions with the blessings of the British, Hughes was alarmed by this policy. Japan obtained control over the South Pacific Mandate , north of the equator. After the war, Prime Minister Billy Hughes led a new conservative force, the Nationalist Party , formed from the old Liberal party and breakaway elements of Labor of which he was the most prominent , after the deep and bitter split over Conscription.


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      8. An estimated 12, Australians died as a result of the Spanish flu pandemic of , almost certainly brought home by returning soldiers. The success of the Bolshevik Revolution in Russia posed a threat in the eyes of many Australians, although to a small group of socialists, it was an inspiration. The Communist Party of Australia was formed in and, though remaining electorally insignificant, it obtained some influence in the trade union movement and was banned during World War II for its support for the Hitler-Stalin Pact and the Menzies Government unsuccessfully tried to ban it again during the Korean War.

      Despite splits, the party remained active until its dissolution at the end of the Cold War. The Country Party today's National Party formed in to promulgate its version of agrarianism , which it called " Countrymindedness ". The goal was to enhance the status of the graziers operators of big sheep ranches and small farmers, and secure subsidies for them. Other significant after-effects of the war included ongoing industrial unrest, which included the Victorian Police strike.

      Other major strikes occurred on the waterfront, in the coalmining and timber industries in the late s. The union movement had established the Australian Council of Trade Unions ACTU in in response to the Nationalist government's efforts to change working conditions and reduce the power of the unions. The consumerism, entertainment culture, and new technologies that characterised the s in the United States were also found in Australia. Prohibition was not implemented in Australia, though anti-alcohol forces were successful in having hotels closed after 6 pm, and closed altogether in a few city suburbs.

      The fledgling film industry declined through the decade, over 2 million Australians attending cinemas weekly at venues. A Royal Commission in failed to assist and the industry that had begun so brightly with the release of the world's first feature film, The Story of the Kelly Gang , atrophied until its revival in the s. Speaking in early , Bruce summed up the priorities and optimism of many Australians, saying that "men, money and markets accurately defined the essential requirements of Australia" and that he was seeking such from Britain.

      In Australia, the costs of major investment had traditionally been met by state and Federal governments and heavy borrowing from overseas was made by the governments in the s. A Loan Council was set up in to co-ordinate loans, three-quarters of which came from overseas. Wheat and wool made up more than two-thirds of all Australian exports", a dangerous reliance on just two export commodities. Australia embraced the new technologies of transport and communication.

      Coastal sailing ships were finally abandoned in favour of steam, and improvements in rail and motor transport heralded dramatic changes in work and leisure. In there were 50, cars and lorries in the whole of Australia. By there were , He went on to global fame and a series of aviation records before vanishing on a night flight to Singapore in This formalised the Balfour Declaration of , a report resulting from the Imperial Conference of British Empire leaders in London, which defined Dominions of the British empire in the following way: "They are autonomous Communities within the British Empire , equal in status, in no way subordinate one to another in any aspect of their domestic or external affairs, though united by a common allegiance to the Crown , and freely associated as members of the British Commonwealth of Nations.

      The Australia Act removed any remaining links between the British Parliament and the Australian states. New South Wales has had one further territory surrendered, namely Jervis Bay Territory comprising 6, hectares, in The Northern Territory was transferred from the control of the South Australian government to the Commonwealth in Australia was deeply affected by the Great Depression of the s, particularly due to its heavy dependence on exports, especially primary products such as wool and wheat.

      Australia's dependence of exports left her extraordinarily vulnerable to world market fluctuations", according to economic historian Geoff Spenceley. The situation caused alarm amongst a few politicians and economists, notably Edward Shann of the University of Western Australia , but most political, union and business leaders were reluctant to admit to serious problems. As the economy slowed in , so did manufacturing and the country slipped into recession as profits slumped and unemployment rose.

      At elections held in October , the Labor Party was swept into power in a landslide victory ; Stanley Bruce , the former Prime Minister, lost his own seat. The new Prime Minister, James Scullin , and his largely inexperienced government were almost immediately faced with a series of crises. Hamstrung by their lack of control of the Senate, a lack of control over the banking system and divisions within their party over how best to deal with the situation, the government was forced to accept solutions that eventually split the party, as it had in Various "plans" to resolve the crisis were suggested; Sir Otto Niemeyer , a representative of the English banks who visited in mid, proposed a deflationary plan, involving cuts to government spending and wages.

      Treasurer Ted Theodore proposed a mildly inflationary plan, while the Labor Premier of New South Wales , Jack Lang , proposed a radical plan which repudiated overseas debt. The Melbourne Premiers' Conference agreed to cut wages and pensions as part of a severe deflationary policy but Lang renounced the plan.

      The grand opening of the Sydney Harbour Bridge in provided little respite to the growing crisis straining the young federation. With multimillion-pound debts mounting, public demonstrations and move and counter-move by Lang and then Scullin, then Lyons federal governments, the Governor of New South Wales , Philip Game , had been examining Lang's instruction not to pay money into the Federal Treasury. Game judged it was illegal. Lang refused to withdraw his order and, on 13 May, he was dismissed by Governor Game.

      At June elections, Lang Labor's seats collapsed. May had seen the creation of a new conservative political force, the United Australia Party formed by breakaway members of the Labor Party combining with the Nationalist Party. They remained in power until September The Lyons government has often been credited with steering recovery from the depression, although just how much of this was owed to their policies remains contentious.

      Australia recovered relatively quickly from the financial downturn of —, with recovery beginning around The Prime Minister, Joseph Lyons, favoured the tough economic measures of the Premiers' Plan, pursued an orthodox fiscal policy and refused to accept the proposals of the Premier of New South Wales, Jack Lang, to default on overseas debt repayments. According to author Anne Henderson of the Sydney Institute , Lyons held a steadfast belief in "the need to balance budgets, lower costs to business and restore confidence" and the Lyons period gave Australia "stability and eventual growth" between the drama of the Depression and the outbreak of the Second World War.

      A lowering of wages was enforced and industry tariff protections maintained, which together with cheaper raw materials during the s saw a shift from agriculture to manufacturing as the chief employer of the Australian economy—a shift which was consolidated by increased investment by the commonwealth government into defence and armaments manufacture.

      Sea of Doubt - Australian Story

      Lyons saw restoration of Australia's exports as the key to economic recovery. There is debate over the extent reached by unemployment in Australia, often cited as peaking at 29 per cent in Statistics collected by historian Peter Spearritt show This is not to say that In the working class suburb of Paddington , Extraordinary sporting successes did something to alleviate the spirits of Australians during the economic downturn.

      In a Sheffield Shield cricket match at the Sydney Cricket Ground in , Don Bradman , a young New South Welshman of just 21 years of age wrote his name into the record books by smashing the previous highest batting score in first-class cricket with runs not out in just minutes. Between and the racehorse Phar Lap dominated Australia's racing industry, at one stage winning fourteen races in a row.

      Soon after, on the cusp of US success, Phar Lap developed suspicious symptoms and died. Theories swirled that the champion race horse had been poisoned and a devoted Australian public went into shock. Until the late s, defence was not a significant issue for Australians. At the elections, both political parties advocated increased defence spending, in the context of increased Japanese aggression in China and Germany's aggression in Europe; however, there was a difference in opinion over how the defence spending should be allocated. The United Australia Party government emphasised co-operation with Britain in "a policy of imperial defence".

      The lynchpin of this was the British naval base at Singapore and the Royal Navy battle fleet "which, it was hoped, would use it in time of need". In , the Navy, which included two heavy cruisers and four light cruisers, was the service best equipped for war. Fearing Japanese intentions in the Pacific, Menzies established independent embassies in Tokyo and Washington to receive independent advice about developments.

      By September the Australian Army numbered 3, regulars. It is my melancholy duty to inform you, officially, that, in consequence of the persistence by Germany in her invasion of Poland , Great Britain has declared war upon her, and that, as a result, Australia is also at war. Thus began Australia's involvement in the six-year global conflict.