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Editorial Reviews. About the Author. William E. Cole (–) was Professor of Economics Steel and Economic Growth in Mexico (Llilas Latin American Monograph Book 7) - Kindle edition by William Edward Cole. Download it once and.
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Was their role granted to them or seized by them? It is a key aspect of Italian history, and may be similarly central in all those countries in which national unification came late and by unusual means, since in such places, in the absence of well-defined interests and in the presence of excessively weak political structures, a particularly central role was given to intellectuals in propping up those in power, intervening on behalf of the people, 40 or simply in radical contestation. And yet the identification of intellectuals and literary figures, though it is not unjustified in the history of many nations, has ended too often in eliding the uniqueness of literature and in reducing literary history to the history of ideologies.
Literary history has become the history of intellectuals and their role, of their explicit and implicit connections with the world of ideas, of movements, of the great trends.
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Yet another sort of literary history of considerable interest is that which fo- cuses on writers and their lives. This is a type of history that has its own par- ticular problems, problems of legitimacy and of methodology. For example, is it really possible to reconstruct and interpret the course of a life, assembling its details into an orderly and meaningful narrative? What are the interpretive tools to which one can legitimately have recourse in doing so?
What narrative choices should one make among the many that have been tried in this particu- lar literary genre?
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Moreover, this sort of history raises delicate questions about the relationship between literature and biography, between social history and the history of individuals. On the other hand, nobody is inclined to deny absolutely either the inherent interest or the theoretical legiti- macy of the biography as history and narrative.
An individual life may trace an arc that departs significantly from the arc traced by social structures, with their internal dynamics of organization, transformation, and stabilization. There are writers whose lives have straddled some great social transformation, and who lived half in one historical period and half in another. Here again arises the problem, to which I made reference at the beginning of this essay, of the re- lationship between the individual and the general.
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To emphasize the particu- lar circumstances of individual lives and works can confer a certain thickness and authenticity to a literary history, but it risks shattering any more general de- sign, thus reducing history to a series of portraits or busts of individual writers. The types of literary history that I have discussed so far tend to consider the literary work as a document, not a monument, interest themselves more in con- texts than in texts themselves, and take their points of departure from individual elements of the historical context: institutions, language, ideas, intellectuals, and so on.
As representative examples of this category, we will consider now two other ap- proaches, both of which have been tried many times and ended in failure; be- cause of this, their viability remains open to question. I am talking about the history of literary forms and that of literary themes. The idea of doing literary history as a history of literary forms was the great dream of the Russian formalists, and later of the Prague structuralists. At the roots of this project initiated by Tynianov and taken up later in Prague 41 by Mukarovsky is the idea that literary forms have their own existence and agency.
I believe there is a subtle point here calling for deeper exploration. Literary forms can certainly be said to have their own histories. One could imagine, for example, a history of the octave, or a history of terza rima from Dante through Machiavelli to the modern era, or a history of poesia barbara modern accented poetry that imitates classical quantitative meters , of prose poetry, of free verse. Each of these literary forms appeared at a certain moment in the development of literature and not before or after; each had an originator and went through transformations and innovations.
And yet, after all the great work done on one aspect of the history of literary forms or another, the realization has been that it is not possible to construct a proper literary history on this basis, since a literary history that takes forms as its point of departure will never escape those forms into the broader landscape of literary production. Less frequent have been attempts to write literary histories focusing on lit- erary themes. Moreover, the images are placed in connection with a larger and more meaningful system, with the broader cultural or literary imaginary, and even with a generalizing history of the relationship between humankind and things, culture and nature.
But even with such an enthralling instance of this type of work, the ques- tion nevertheless arises of whether it is really possible to write satisfying literary history by beginning from a single theme or even an entire network of themes. The question remains even in cases where a scholar departs from a single el- ement or network and connects it to a more general and comprehensive the- matic structure that constituted —so he may claim—the imaginary of an entire historical era.
A work like that of Ernst Robert Curtius, on a quite broad series 43 of themes that recur in classical and medieval literature , though having some of the features I am talking about, is in the final analysis rather partial. The themes or topoi that it takes as its purview are appealed to in order to support or collaborate a historical thesis that is quite subjective and clearly ideologically motivated: that of the continuity of the classical Christian tradition and medi- 44 eval literature. Thematic reconstruction can too often degenerate into a kind of historical taking of sides, an almost obsessive reference back to past tradi- tions, all within a generalizing and universalizing drift that more often than not ends up occluding the particular characteristics of individual periods or works.
Examples of successful thematic research do exist, made possible by a certain compactness of the themes in question in particular historical periods, or by 45 the particular density of certain thematic strands , which thus collected around themselves whole sections of the imaginary in a consistent way through vari- 46 ous periods of history. And departing from partial reconstructions, it is difficult to attain the ideal of a generalized and comprehensive literary history. Whenever one finishes reading a work of this nature, the same question always arises: are these literary genres and styles best defined and described in terms of the the- matic structures that characterize them or in terms of their formal and rhetori- cal features?
The real achievement would be to provide at the same time a history of liter- ary themes and literary forms, with the two aspects linked closely together. But I am not sure whether even this, once it was attained, would be enough. One thing, in any case, is certain: whoever takes it upon himself to write a literary history should be aware that he has in front of him a choice, a necessity to take an explicit stand in terms of his point of view and his aims.
This is what David Perkins means when he writes that a literary history must be written from 50 a specific point ofview. Bearing this principle in mind, we can add that the most useful and convinc- ing literary histories are those that combine more than one of the approaches I have surveyed, thus avoiding the limitations of any single approach. Avoiding a simple identification of literary history as a whole with one type of literary his- tory is particularly important for those who focus on context and risk thereby making a history of literary works into a history of documents.
If we are really serious about constructing an image of the flower that turns to us from the past and lifts itself into the sky of history, we have to embrace multiple perspectives, triangulating contrasting approaches and insisting on maintaining and explor- ing the relationship between texts and contexts. We come now to the second question I wanted to ask: how does one do lit- erary history?
Well, how are literary histories done? These ap- proaches are narrating and describing. There is a continual oscillation between these two modes of writing in the works that we call literary histories. Often an author halts his or her narrative to begin a description of individual works of art; he contemplates and analyzes them, describing them in all their specificity, letting us understand how they are constructed. Then, knowing well, like any good storyteller, that audiences do not like excessively long descriptions, he or she returns to the dominant mode, to the rhetorical and structural principle at the foundation of all literary histories, that is, to narrative.
In literary histories, all these elements are integrated and organized into a narrative that conforms to the conventions of logical and linear development, makes use of effects such as complication as denouement, and pays attention to the devices of suspense 52 and surprise. Of course, there is more than one way of organizing a narrative.
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There is the classic model of the Bildungsroman. There is the foregrounding and placing in relief of a few exemplary characters of literary history in a manner reminiscent of the historical novel. There is the exciting journey between texts encountered almost by chance in a narrative that is like nothing so much as an adventure novel. There is the dense cataloging of dates, lives, genres, and texts in a liter- ary history that approaches the nineteenth-century novel in its overfed vastness.
There is the imitation of the experimental novel, aiming to provide a deliberately fragmented account of the literature of the past. And finally there is the ambi- tious attempt at creating a literary history that is consonant with the modern or postmodern sensibility, with multiple plotlines and perspectives, intersections and superimpositions, and a few pregnant moments in which the longue dure'e breaks into the present, revealing the existential timelessness of the human condition.
Perkins, Is Literary History Possible? Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, Taine, Histoire de la Iitte'rature anylaise, 2nd ed. The interpretation of the two concepts of documents and monuments among histo- rians has varied substantially. Wellek, review of C. Mendelsohn Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, , Ceserani, Raccontare la letteratura Turin: Bollati Boringhieri, Perkins, ed.
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Marti Paris: Seuil, , 1: Ceserani, Raccontare la letteratura, For an introduction to reception theory, see H. Tompkins, ed. Holub, ed. Warning, ed. For an introduction to the New Historicism, see S. Veeser, ed. Wilson and R.
Dutton, eds. Payne, ed. Febvre and H.
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Furet and J. Published by Winter Heidelberg beginning in Legouis and L. The distinction between Kultur and Ziuilisation is very neat in German: by Kultur is understood the original, hereditary patrimony of a people, the totality of its traditions, customs, and characteristics; by Ziuilisation is meant a process of cultural, intellectual, and spiritual refinement.
See R. Of interest in this regard even in the title is H. Bhabha, Nation and Narration London: Routledge, Along the same lines, with particular attention to literature: G. Gerratana Turin: Einaudi, , See C. Dionisotti, Geograjia estoria della letteratura italiana Turin: Einaudi, In Italy, there has been a huge surge in linguistic history, often involving sophis- ticated methodologies and always diverging from simple linguistic analysis to larger his- torical structures and events.
See, in particular, F. Bruni, ed. Asor Rosa, ed. Branca, Tradizione delle opere di G. Boccaccio Rome: Edizioni di storia e lettera- tura, ; Boccaccio medieuale Florence: Sansoni, I discuss these issues at some length in my Raccontare la letteratura, pp. Fuller references: R. Escarpit et al.