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But when we remember the magnificent mosaics, paintings, and frescoes these methods produced, the book takes on an even greater value as a touchstone to.
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The Norman invasion of England in is a case in point. The victorious French-speaking Normans submitted to the cultural cohesiveness and prepon- derance of the Anglo-Saxons and adopted the language of the vanquished.

Although at the date of the conquest the Normans were regarded as one of the most advanced and progressive peoples of Europe, both their language and civilization were young and uncultivated. Indeed, they had adopted their language from the French only a little over a century prior to their invasion of England, and they apparently had no deep cultural roots or any ardent attachment to the French language.

Nevertheless, a vast number of French and Latin words were introduced in the course of time into the Anglo-Saxon language by the Norman conquerors. These words were assimilated with the grammatical and syntactical pattern of the Anglo-Saxon lan- guage. As a matter of fact, it was only after that English began admitting French words quite liberally. The German victors readily gave up the use of their mother-tongue in these countries.

In like manner, the Mongols who conquered India in the sixteenth century, adopted the Hindustani dialect while remaining loyal to their Moslem faith. The history of the Hebrew language presents an exact paral- lel. The Canaanite civilization during the period of the Abram- ide invasion was undoubtedly on a very high plane, as is attested by recent archaeological discoveries as well as by biblical evidence. It is, therefore, reasonable to as- sume that the indigenous masses of the vanquished persisted in using their native tongue, which the conquering masters had to learn.

In the case of the Hebrews, the adoption of the Canaanite civilization and language was quite a simple process, since both the civilization and the language of Canaan were largely the creations of their own kinsmen, of the earlier migratory waves. Some of these kinsmen may have been of great assistance to the invading Abramides, especially to the later Israelites. One may venture the conjecture that such help by the kinsmen of the Abramides, who had previously settled in Canaan and had more or less been assimilated with the native population, was not at all unusual.

This help may have considerably facili- tated the conquest of Canaan by the Israelites. It is, indeed, significant that the earliest literary records of the Hebrews, such as the Song of Moses, after the passage through the Sea of Reeds the Red Sea , as well as the Song of Deborah, dating back probably to the thirteenth and eleventh centuries B.

Many efforts by the Hebrews experimenting with this newly-learned language as a literary vehicle must have pre- ceded the earliest available records; otherwise the Hebrew could hardly have been employed with such consummate skill. Un- fortunately these early efforts are thus far still hidden in ob- scurity. However, valuable records antedating the biblical ma- terials, written in a language akin to Hebrew, were recently discovered, such as the Ugaritic poems, which will be discussed in a later chapter. Other Linguistic Influences on Hebrew Aramaic is not the only language traces of which are found in early Hebrew.

It should, of course, occasion no surprise to find that Egypt had an influence on ancient Hebrew. The so- journ of the early Hebrews in Egypt is now accepted by archaelogists as an established fact, although it is generally maintained that the greater part of the Hebrews had remained in Palestine and never entered Egypt at all. All through the second millennium B. For a period of over a century and a half c. As a matter of fact, an Amorite name Yagub-ilu was found in business documents in Babylonia, composed dur- ing the early part of the millennium.

The same word is also recorded in an Egyptian document of the fifteenth century B. When the Hyksos were later defeated and driven back into Asia, the Egyptians re-established their rule over Palestine, and mutual relationships between the peoples on both sides of the border were maintained.

There can be little doubt that the su- perior Egyptian civilization exercised a tremendous influence on the religion, the language and the literature of the Hebrews. Indeed, we find in the Bible a considerable number of Egyp- tian words, which were eventually incorporated in the Hebrew language as an integral part of its vocabulary.

Similarly, some passages in the Pentateuch, especially in the Joseph story or in the book of Exodus, which are ex- tremely difficult to explain, are readily explainable in the light of the Egyptian language. Numerous other such examples can be adduced.

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Another center of civilization in the Near East, during the dawn of Jewish history, when the Hebrew language was strug- gling to be born, was Babylonia, situated in the Mesopotamian Valley and watered by the Tigris and the Euphrates rivers. It is now generally designated as Assyro-Babylonian, since both the Assyrian and Babylonian languages shared common characteristics, with only minor dia- lectical differences.

This language was the international diplomatic language of the Near East during the patriarchal period and for several cen- turies subsequent to it. It has yielded more written records about the ancient period of that region than any other language. It was in this language that the famous code of Hammurabi dur- ing the first quarter of the second millennium B. It was in the same language that the Canaanite princes of the fourteenth century addressed pleading letters to the Egyp- tian Pharaoh, the religious reformer Akhenaton, who established his new capitol in Tell-el-Amarna.

In these letters the princes appealed for help against the invading Hapiru, who were overrunning the country and jeopardizing the Egyptian su- premacy there. The early Hebrews must have come in contact with this language, and some of them may have been conversant with it. Indeed, a great many Assyro-Babylonian words have a familiar Hebrew ring. In the following words: ummanu, anaku, shipru, alaku, erebu, alpu, ayabu, urru, kirbu, ishten, eshrit, ekallu, shaknu, sharru, it is not at all difficult for a Hebraist to identify the respective Hebrew equivalents: ommon artist, artisan , anokhi I , sefer book , halakh went , arbeh locust , eleph cattle , oyeh enemy , or light , kereb inward part, bowels , ashte esreh eleven , heikhal palace , sokhen, segen, or sagan governor ruler and sar chief, captain.

It may be of interest to note that the name Tel Aviv given to the most important new city of Israel is traced back by some scholars to Assyro-Babylonian. This name is found in Ezekiel 3. The origin of this name is, according to some mod- ern scholars, Tel Abubi the Mound of the Flood. In translating Dr. The similarities between Hebrew and Assyro-Babylonian or Akkadian4 are not limited to vocabulary; they are also evident in grammatical structure.

The prohibitive phrase la tazkur is clearly reminiscent of the equivalent Hebrew lo tizkor do not remember. So is the Hebrew yizkor will re- member, was remembering, remembers , from the stem zkr, very much like the Akkadian izkur remembered. Similarly, there are striking resemblances between the two languages in some idiomatic expressions. There must certainly have been some mutual influence between these two languages.

Simultaneously with the Hebrews another people appeared on the scene in the history of Canaan. These were the Philis- tines, who are referred to in Egyptian records as the Sea Peo- ple.

They apparently hailed from the Aegean and Minoan spheres, and were probably mainly Cretans. They invaded Canaan in migratory waves from about the middle of the sec- ond millennium down to the twelfth century B. The early contacts of the Philistines with the Hebrew settlers were apparently friendly,5 but after having been reenforced by fresh waves of invaders from their native shores around the turn of the eleventh century, the Philistines turned hostile and belligerent in their relations with the Israelites.

Bitter wars were fought between the two peoples until the Philistines were fi- nally conquered by David.

Hermeneutics

The material civilization of the Philistines was superior to that of the early Hebrew settlers. The Philistines were recog- nized masters of the arts and crafts, including metallurgy. The alien elements were assimilated and incorporated into the language and its grammatical structure. When Rabshakeh, the Assyrian general, who laid siege to Jerusalem in the days of Isaiah, addressed himself in Hebrew to the royal officers and asked for surrender, the latter pleaded with him to speak Ara- maic, so that the conversation might remain private and con- fidential.

Rabshakeh, however, retorted that he preferred to employ Hebrew, not Aramaic, in order to have his message understood by all the residents of the beleaguered city 2 Kings Origin of the Name To go back to the invading Abramides, how did they come to be known as Hebrews? How did this name ibri , by which Abraham and his descendants are designated in the Bible, origi- nate? In fact, as was mentioned above, toward the fourteenth century B. The traditional account, according to which Abraham came from Babylonia by way of Haran, through Hit- tite and Amorite territory, into Palestine, seems to coincide with that given in this correspondence relative to the migrations of the Habiru tribes.

They fought for this land and conquered it after many struggles and sacrifices. They struck deep roots in this land. They learned to love it and to regard it as their own. Why then should they be regarded as tran- sients or nomads?

They may therefore have modified the term by tacit popular consensus, changing it to a form with a more favorable connotation; namely, ibrim, presumably derived from me-eber ha-nahar, that is, people coming from the other side of the Jordan or Euphrates. The name preferred there is benei Yisrael the children of Israel, or Israelites , which was apparently a national name of honor, having religious and na- tional connotations see Genesis The name ibri was generally employed by foreigners to identify an Israelite.

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Hence this name is used by the wife of Potifar ibid. Pharaoh is unable to identify the God of Israel mentioned by Moses, whereupon Moses proceeds to explain that he is referring to the God of the Hebrews Exodus 5.

The Israelites were an offshoot, who dissociated themselves from the main stock and embarked, as a distinctive group, upon a national career and religious ideology of their own. One may adduce in this connection the analogy of the desig- nation for the Arab tribes or peoples. In ancient non-Arabic sources all Arabic tribes are referred to as Arabs. In their own literature, however, Arabs prefer to identify themselves by the particular tribe to which they belong. The same is true of mod- ern Arabs. Among themselves they prefer to be known as Egyp- tians, Syrians, Irakis, etc.

Similarly, the bedouins are also known as Arabs, but only in relation to the outside world. Among themselves they prefer to be designated by the particu- lar pedigree or tribe to which they belong. This would explain why the Hebrew language is always designated in the Bible as Sefat Canaan Isaiah Apparently, as long as the lan- guage was a living vernacular, and its dominance was not chal- lenged by any competitive language, no sensitivity about its national significance existed.

The language was taken for granted as is any modern vernacular in its national and natural milieu. It was referred to as the language spoken in Canaan or in Judea. At the same time the Jewish people were referred to as Hebrews, although in talmudic lit- erature the appellation Yisrael Israelite or Yehudi Judean were generally in vogue; the term ibri was rarely employed as a national designation.

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The first use of the term Hebrew in reference to the Hebrew language is found in The Book of Jubilees, which probably dates back to about the third century B. It is, however, to be noted that the use of the term by the writers of that period is not always clear. The term ibrit, or Hebrew, is employed occa- sionally in the Talmud,10 as well as by Josephus11 and the apos- tles,12 in reference to Aramaic or the Aramaic dialect used by the Jews. Philo, on the other hand, designates the language of the Pentateuch as the language of the Chaldeans.

Since a large number of Jews employed an Aramaic dialect during the second commonwealth, this dialect was referred to as Hebrew;14 while Philo, who ap- parently did not know Hebrew and may have never read the Bible either in Hebrew or in Aramaic, mistakenly identified the Hebrew language of the Pentateuch with the Aramaic dialect employed by the Jews during his time, especially in Alexandria and Babylonia. These terms were calculated to emphasize the distinction between Hebrew and the Aramaic language, which began gaining vogue as the spoken tongue and was employed for secular purposes.

The term leshon kodesh, more- over, was not confined to the language of the Scriptures; it was also used in reference to prayers, blessings and pronounce- ments written in mishnaic Hebrew. In medieval Hebrew literature and especially in modern times the term ibrit in reference to the Hebrew language is predomi- nant, although the term leshon kodesh is not entirely unused. Since the Hebrew language is now used extensively for secular purposes, especially in Israel, the term ibrit is more appropriate and has become generally accepted.

The Character of Classical Hebrew The classical Hebrew of biblical literature, although its use extended over a period of more than a thousand years, has a unique stylistic and grammatical pattern. It is solemn, noble, and majestic; it has virility and vigor; it is succinct, but rich in imagery and picturesqueness. The rabbis, with true pedagogic insight, deemed it necessary to fill the gaps of the biblical nar- rative with aggadic tales and interpretations. Similarly, Thomas Mann, drawing from rabbinic and archaeological sources, was able to extend twenty verses in Genesis chap.

The biblical artists paint, as it were, on a small canvas with a fine brush and with consummate skill and artistry, as well as with a burning passion.