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Police Science Book Reviews, 61 J. Crim. L. Criminology series of books in the field of law enforcement to . last major segment of the book, Part VI, is an.
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Some research on mandatory arrest for. These experiments, funded by the Department of Justice, replaced police officer discretion at the scene of the incident by assigning them, prior to arrival at the scene, to the randomized treatment of arrest, separation, or mediation. Main effects analysis by Schmidt and Sherman of randomized experiments in six different cities compared repeat offending rates after arrest with no arrest when suspects were still present when police arrived.

This analysis found deterrent effects of arrest in three cities and no effect of arrest in three other cities. In Omaha, NE Dunford et al. A seventh experiment in Omaha Dunford et al. That study found a deterrent effect of issuing an arrest warrant but not finding or apprehending the suspect in the same city in which in-custody arrest had no effect on repeat violence. Other analyses of these data have attempted to determine the overall effect of arrest across these experiments.

A more recent analysis aggregated selected cases across five of the randomized trials. Despite major cross-site differences in response rates to victim surveys, methods of recording official data, and deviations from the random assignment of cases, this review con- cluded that there is on average a small but significant deterrent effect Max- well, Garner, and Fagan, Because community policing involves so many different tactics, its effect as a general strategy cannot be directly evaluated. Some com- munity policing strategies appear to reduce crime, disorder, or fear of crime.

Many others have not been found to be effective when evaluated. Community policing is extremely difficult to define, and its definition has varied over time and among police agencies Green and Mastrofski,. However, one of the principal assump- tions of community policing is that the police can draw from a much broader array of resources than is found in the traditional law enforcement powers of the police.

For example, most scholars agree that community policing should entail greater community involvement in the definition of crime problems and in police activities to prevent and control crime Skolnick and Bayley, ; Goldstein, Yet in terms of strategies and tactics this broad rubric includes as much as it excludes: police agencies responding to surveys have listed an enormous variety of programs Bayley and Worden, ; Maguire et al.

Some scholars argue that community policing also demands decentralization of police agencies, and greater emphasis on the autonomy and tasks of street-level police officers Skolnick and Bayley, Problem-oriented policing is often considered one of the core ele- ments of community policing, and accordingly some of our discussion be- low in Proposition 4 relates to programs that were initiated or developed in the context of a community policing initiative.

We have for analytic pur- poses separated them in this report; however, we think it important to rec- ognize the complex ways in which police strategies are implemented and developed. Police practices associated with community policing have been particu- larly broad, and the strategies associated with community policing have sometimes changed over time.

Foot patrol, for example, was considered an important element of community policing in the s, but it has not been a core component of more recent community policing programs. Conse- quently, it is often difficult to determine if researchers studying community policing in different agencies at different times are studying the same phe- nomena. When this fact is coupled with variations in research design, mea- surement, and statistical analysis, it is very difficult to draw definitive con- clusions regarding the crime control effectiveness of community policing.

In the view of the committee, community policing may be seen as reac- tion to the standard models of policing. It demands recognition of the com- munity context of policing and suggests that the activities and strategies of the police must be fit to the special needs and circumstances of local com- munities Weisburd and McElroy, Moreover, community policing departs from the standard models of policing on another important dimen- sion.

While the standard model of policing has relied primarily on the re- sources of the police and its traditional law enforcement powers, commu- nity policing suggests a reliance on a more community-based crime control that draws not only on the resources of the police but also on the resources of the public.

Community policing programs, such as neighborhood watch, general foot patrol, storefront offices, and community meetings have not been found to reduce crime, although storefront offices and community meetings may. Door to door visits, however, have been found to reduce both crime and disorder. In a review of the effectiveness of community policing initiatives, Sherman broke community policing down into distinct strategies and summarized the evidence about the crime reduction effects of each.

He concludes that neither neighborhood watch nor community organizing more generally reduces crime. On average the studies reviewed do not show statistically significant crime reductions. How- ever, poorer and more disadvantaged neighborhoods in which such pro- grams would appear to be most needed appeared to benefit the least from them Rosenbaum, Other widely used strategies in community policing are based on im- proving the information exchange between the police and the public.

Stud- ies do not support the view that community meetings Wycoff and Skogan, , storefront offices Skogan, ; Uchida et al. Door to door visits have been found to reduce both crime see Sherman, and disorder Skogan, However, simply providing information about crime to the public does not have crime prevention benefits Sherman, As noted above, foot patrol was an important component of early com- munity policing efforts and it is a common policing tactic.

In , local police departments that routinely used foot patrol employed about three- fourths of all officers in the United States BJS, An early uncon- trolled evaluation of foot patrol in Flint, MI, concluded that foot patrol reduced reported crime Trojanowicz, Bower and Hirsch , however, found no discernable reduction in crime or disorder due to foot patrols in Boston, MA.

A more rigorous evaluation of foot patrol in New- ark, NJ, found that it did not reduce criminal victimizations Police Foun- dation, Nonetheless, the same study found that foot patrol reduced residents' fear of crime. There is also evidence that community policing lowers the community's level of fear when programs are focused on increasing community-police interaction.

Community policing strategies are expected to influence fear of crime by making the police an easily accessible and more visible presence, or reducing the sense of physical, social, and psychological distance be- tween ordinary citizens and police officers, or both Wycoff and Skogan, The Police Foundation conducted many of the studies examining community policing strategies and fear of crime; these studies tend to have similar designs and are conducted in a small group of cities.

The research designs usually in-. Although the results of the Police Foundation studies are mixed, two general patterns appear. First, studies show that policing strategies charac- terized by more direct involvement of police and citizens, such as citizen contract patrol, police community stations, and coordinated community policing, often have the predicted negative effect on fear of crime among individuals and on individual level of concern about crime in the neighbor- hood Pate and Skogan, ; Wycoff and Skogan, Although these results were found in different studies and in different cities, they are not necessarily uniform across all groups.

For example, Brown and Wycoff found that fear among black residents and renters was not reduced in view of the presence of citizen contact patrols or community stations.

An aspect of community policing that has only recently received sys- tematic research attention concerns the influences of police officer behavior toward citizens, thus shaping the behavior of citizens. Citizen noncom- pliance with requests from police officers can be considered a form of dis- order.

Does officer demeanor influence citizen compliance?

The Encyclopedia of Police Science

Based on sys- tematic observations of police-citizen encounters in Richmond, VA, Mastrofski, Snipes, and Supina studied whether officer treatment of citizens influenced their compliance with officer requests. Controlling for other relevant situational characteristics, they found that when officers were disrespectful toward citizens, citizens were less likely to comply with their requests. In a related study, based on observations of police-citizen encoun- ters in St.

However, in this larger study, the researchers found that offic- ers who were respectful were more likely to obtain compliance with their requests, controlling for other factors about the situation.

In particular, policing crime hot spots has become a common police strategy for reducing crime and disorder prob- lems. While there is only preliminary evidence suggesting the effective- ness of targeting specific types of offenders, a strong body of evidence suggests that taking a focused geographic approach to crime problems can increase the effectiveness of policing. One of the most important changes in American policing over the last decade has been the emergence of a geographic focus to police efforts to control crime. A series of national surveys suggests that police in the United States are not only developing the technological capabilities to examine the geographic distribution of crime, but that they are also using those technologies to focus their efforts on very specific places where crime is most strongly concentrated Weisburd, For example, a National Institute of Justice survey of police departments conducted in suggests that 36 percent of police agencies with more than sworn officers have the capability to produce computerized maps of crime Mamalian and LaVigne, In a more recent Police Foundation study, more than 7 in 10 departments with more than sworn officers reported using crime- mapping to identify crime hot spots Weisburd, Greenspan, and Mastrofski, There has, in turn, been long-standing interest in the possible crime control benefits of targeting specific types of offenders in the criminal jus- tice system National Research Council, For example, it is often assumed that targeting the most active offenders will lead to significant crime reduction Spelman, ; National Research Council, It has also been suggested that the social and economic characteristics of offend- ers may influence their responses to criminal justice sanctions.

We review research in four specific areas: 1 police crackdowns, 2 hot-spots policing, 3 focus on repeat offenders, and 4 mandatory arrest for domestic violence. Police Crackdowns While the focusing of police resources on specific areas is often seen as a part of a recent innovation in policing, there is a long history of police practices that target particularly troublesome locations or problems. Such tactics can be distinguished from more recent hot-spots policing approaches described below in that they were usually focused on one or a small num- ber of targets and did not represent a more general strategy for dealing with crime problems.

Police crackdowns have been found to have short-term benefits in re- ducing crime and disorder. Reviewing 18 case studies, Sherman found strong evidence that crackdowns produce initial deterrence.

Advancing Policing Through Innovation and Science.

This is not to say that research evidence is uniformly in support of this proposition. Some studies report contrary findings see, e. However, when crack- downs are tightly focused, evidence suggests that immediate crime preven- tion benefits are likely. This does not mean, however, that such crackdown strategies are likely to lead to long-term effects on crime or disorder. The case studies examined by Sherman suggest that the deterrent effects of crack- downs, even those that are extended, are likely to decay rapidly over time. Sherman also reports that crackdowns did not lead to spatial displacement of crime to nearby areas in the majority of studies he reviewed.

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This absence of spatial displacement is consistent with more general re- views of the displacement research. Spatial displacement in response to tar- geted crime prevention efforts has not been found to be common, and when it occurs it is less than the overall crime reduction effect Cornish and Clarke, ; Barr and Pease, ; Eck, ; Clarke and Weisburd, ; Hesseling, Hot-Spots Policing Although there is a long history of efforts to focus police patrols Gay, Schell, and Schack, ; Wilson, , the emergence of what is often termed hot-spots policing is generally traced to theoretical, empirical, and technological innovation in the s and s Weisburd and Braga, ; Braga et al.

The theoretical underpinnings of this approach can be found in the development of prob- lem-oriented approaches to policing Goldstein, and the more gen- eral situational crime prevention perspective that emerged in England Clarke, a , as well as in the routine activities approach to crime pat- terns Cohen and Felson, In each of these approaches, the place where crime occurs is often a central factor Eck and Weisburd, ; Har- ries, ; Weisburd, Because hot-spots policing programs often include elements of problem solving, we also discuss hot-spots programs in that context under Proposition 4 below.

In this section we confine our dis- cussion to police effectiveness when using a specifically geographic focus. The empirical grounding for the hot-spots approach was laid in a series of studies that documented the high concentration of crime in discrete places, like street corners, specific addresses, street blocks, or small clusters of addresses and street blocks Pierce, Spaar, and Briggs, ; Sherman, Gartin, and Buerger, These studies showed that crime is concentrated in specific places in the urban landscape and is not spread evenly in wide areas or neighborhoods. Indeed, it ap- peared that even in neighborhoods that were seen as crime prone, there were many places free of crime events as measured by official police data, and in areas considered to be "good" neighborhoods there were often crime.

The policy conclusion developed from this work was that the police could be more effective if they focused their resources on hot spots of crime Sherman and Weisburd, While the emergence of hot-spots approaches in American police agen- cies can be traced to theoretical and empirical contributions, it is unlikely that such strategies would have been widely implemented had there not been important innovation in the technologies available to the police.

The development of desk crime-mapping programs made it practical for police agencies to begin to develop geographic understandings of crime in their cities Weisburd and McKewen, A series of randomized field trials shows that policing that is focused on hot spots can result in meaningful reductions in crime and disorder. In a randomized experiment involving com- mercial and residential addresses with the highest frequency of citizen calls for service in Minneapolis, no significant differences were found between control and experimental locations.

However, investigators reported a num- ber of threats to the integrity of the study. In particular, the study intended to apply problem-solving strategies at each experimental location, but the large caseload for the unit responsible for implementing the study made it impossible to apply problem solving with sufficient depth Buerger, Cohen, and Petrosino, While this early application of the hot-spots approach did not provide promising results, six subsequent studies with strong experimental designs suggested that hot-spots policing was effective in responding to crime and disorder problems.

The first of these, the Minneapolis Hot Spots Patrol Experiment Sherman and Weisburd, , used crime-mapping of crime calls to identify general crime hot spots, roughly of street block length.

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These hot spots showed stability in crime trends over time and were not geographically contiguous with one another. The hot spots were then ran- domly assigned to experimental and control locations within statistical blocks determined by crime activity level. Police patrol was doubled on average for the experimental sites over a month period. The study found that the experimental compared with the control hot spots experienced sta- tistically significant reductions in crime calls.

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These differences were of moderate size and were largest when disorder-related calls were examined. Systematic observations of crime and disorder also produced findings of significant reductions in the experimental compared with the control hot spots. Braga In yet another random- ized trial, however, Eck and Wartell found that if the raids were immediately followed by police contacts with landlords, crime prevention benefits could be reinforced and would be sustained for long periods of time.

More general crime and disorder effects are reported in two random- ized experiments that take a more tailored problem-oriented approach to hot-spots policing see the next section for a more detailed discussion of problem-oriented policing approaches. Importantly, all crime categories experienced reductions, and observational data revealed statistically significant declines in social disorder as well.


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In the Jersey City Drug Hot Spots Experiment Weisburd and Green, a , hot-spots-spe- cific tactics were found to be more effective at reducing disorder at drug places than was generalized enforcement. However, in this drug hot-spots experiment, the tailored approaches to drug control had no significant im- pact on violent crime.

Problem-solving interventions were implemented at the experimental sites in both of these experiments, although it is important to note that, in practice, aggressive disorder enforcement tactics were often the central strategy for the units assigned to carry out treatment. Green- Mazzerole and Rohl also found strong reductions in crime and dis- order in an experimental evaluation of civil remedy interventions at drug- involved locations.

These experimental findings are supported by a small group of non- experimental research studies. For example, Hope compared total calls for service in three hot-spots locations in which problem solving was applied with addresses proximate to the treated locations as well as those on other blocks in surrounding areas. Problem solving in this study, as in the Jersey City studies, relied primarily on traditional enforcement tactics. Significant crime reductions were reported.

The Kansas City Gun Project Sherman and Rogan, b also suggests strong crime control benefits for hot-spots approaches. While there is strong evidence that focusing on hot spots reduces crime and disorder, research has not yet distinguished the types of strategies that. The studies reviewed above suggest that the most generalized strategies, for example preventive patrol Sherman and Weisburd, and drug raids Sherman and Rogan, a , are likely to have less impact than approaches that include more problem-solving elements, such as working with landlords Eck and Wartell, ; Green-Mazzerole and Rohl, However, more work with a much larger number of studies is required to define the types of strategies that work best in what circumstances using hot-spots approaches.

Our review suggests that there is strong empirical support for the hot- spots policing approach. However, we have so far discussed only the effects of hot-spots strategies on the places that are the focus of police interven- tions. Such approaches would be much less useful if they simply displaced crime to other nearby places. While measurement of crime displacement is complex and a matter of debate see, e.

For ex- ample, in the Jersey City Drug Market Analysis Experiment Weisburd and Green, a , two block displacement areas around each experimental location were examined. No significant displacement of crime or disorder calls was found.