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Portraits were also painted on panels, although almost none of these have survived. A famous exception is the series of Fayum Mummy Portraits c. Roman Art was based on practical political necessity. Portrait busts of all Emperors, from Julius Caesar to Constantine, were sculpted in marble or bronze. These statues and busts were displayed in public throughout the empire, to celebrate Roman power.

A huge arts industry grew up in the capital, attracting sculptors, painters and artizans from all over Italy and Greece, simply to cope with this demand for imperial portraits. There are, for instance, more than surviving busts of Emperor Augustus. Roman portraits continued the tradition of public art.


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With the coming of the Dark Ages after the sack of Rome c. Portraiture as well as other types of paintings were created mainly for the insides of churches and monasteries, typically in the form of fresco murals or encaustic panel paintings , or used to illustrate illuminated gospel manuscripts, like the Garima Gospels from Ethiopia and the Book of Kells c.

The sole major patron of the arts for most of the Medieval era was the Church. Examples of works from this period include: encaustic panel portraits and icons from Saint Catherine's Monastery, Mount Sinai, such as, Throned Madonna with Child c. During the Romanesque and Gothic periods to the fourteenth century c. The Byzantine style of portrait painting which dominated throughout the period , was not compatible with true-life pictures. Instead, painters adhered to an hieratic style of art, in which the spiritual and human characteristics of a figure were to be inferred from symbolic motifs.

This non-naturalistic approach went largely unchallenged until the arrival of Giotto whose Scrovegni Arena Chapel frescoes were the first pictures to feature realistic, ordinary-looking people, with solid three-dimensional shapes. This new style soon made itself felt in portrait art proper : first, among oil painting experts of the Netherlandish Renaissance c.


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By , portraiture had become a major painting-genre. The Influence of the Italian Renaissance c. Renaissance art introduced several new ideas into painting. These included technical concepts, such as linear perspective, light and shade chiaroscuro and sfumato and 3-D modelling, as well as narrative concepts, such as humanism. These ideas provided portrait artists with greater resources, which soon led to a noticeable rise in the quality of Renaissance portraits.

Meantime, the Church maintained its hold over fine art patronage, commissioning works for cathedrals, churches, chapels, monasteries and convents.

A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man [1977]

Indeed the Vatican almost went bankrupt during the 16th century as successive Popes spent fortunes decorating Rome. It goes without saying therefore, that most portraits during this time were of members of the Holy Family, Martyrs or Apostles.

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The influence of the Renaissance on portraiture endured for centuries, as artists continued to emulate the style of Leonardo, Raphael, Titian and Michelangelo. See also Venetian Portrait Painting Two important developments occurred during the Mannerist c. During the 16th century, a clear hierarchy of paintings was established by the main arts academies - based on a picture's perceived 'inspirational' qualities. Five genres were ranked, as follows: 1 Historical , religious or mythological pictures containing a 'narrative' or 'message' were seen as the worthiest genre, followed by 2 portraits , then 3 genre-paintings , that is pictures of everyday scenes, 4 landscapes and finally 5 still life paintings.

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Because of this, many portrait artists tried to enhance the standing of both their painting and their subject by giving their portraits an historical, religious, or mythological setting. In addition, during the midth century, following the European-wide schism between the Catholic Church in Rome and the Protestant movement - caused by Luther's Reformation c. This campaign, known as the Counter-Reformation , used art as a propaganda weapon, and so commissioned a huge number of religious paintings and sculptures - many executed on a monumental scale - including some iconic portraits.

See also: Baroque Portraits. For 17th century painters who specialized in portraits of kings, see for example Hyacinthe Rigaud , noted for his portraits of Louis XIV. Coinciding with the upsurge in Catholic painting, there emerged a mini-Renaissance in protestant Holland, fuelled by a new, highly materialistic type of customer - the rich middle-class merchant, or professional - who wanted to buy paintings that made him and his family look good. They had to be small enough to hang on the wall of his house, and detailed enough to appear true-to-life.

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Thus the inimitable style of Dutch Realism painting was born. The greatest Dutch Realist artists included wonderful portraitists like Frans Hals , Jan Vermeer and of course, Rembrandt. Note: Portraiture in Russia developed later that in the rest of Europe. It wasn't until the era of Petrine art under Peter the Great that academic-style portrait paintings began to appear.

Expansion of Portraiture: Yesterday's Photography c. Portraiture greatly expanded as a genre during the 18th and 19th centuries.

Artworks by Jan van Eyck

This was due to several factors, including: the universal use of oils and canvas; the increase in commerce which in turn created a large group of wealthy middle-class businessmen and landowners; and the use of portraiture as a way of making a permanent visual record of individuals and families. In any event, there was a significant growth in portrait art during this period, which was only halted with the introduction of the camera in the 20th century.

Probably the two finest female portrait painters of the eighteenth century, were the Swiss artist Angelica Kauffmann , who was active in London and Rome, and Elisabeth Vigee-Lebrun , court painter to Queen Marie-Antoinette. For 19th century paintings, see: Nineteenth century portraits. A specialist genre of romantic portraiture which became highly popular in nineteenth century England, is exemplified by the paintings of Sir Edwin Landseer , whose sentimental portraits of dogs expressed some of the underlying virtues of the Victorian era.

The twentieth century showed little interest in the classical hierarchy of genres, and became absorbed with new ways of representing reality in an era of world wars and moral uncertainty. After a series of Expressionist portraits , advances in photography, film and video, made classical portraiture seem anachronistic and of little value. Instead, 20th century portrait artists simply used the genre as another means of promoting their style of art. Exceptions include Picasso's portraits such as Portrait of Gertrude Stein , and those by the expressionist Modigliani: see, for instance, Portrait of Juan Gris and Portrait of Jeanne Hebuterne Post-war developments have also been influenced by additional art materials, computer-based media and new forms of printmaking, permitting new works in acrylics, aluminium paint, collage form, silk screen prints, computer prints and mixed media, as well as a variety of new sculptural media.

The latest contemporary style of portraiture, known as photorealism hyperrealism is exemplified by artists like the American Chuck Close b. Characteristics of Portrait Art. Like any genre of painting, portrait art reflected the prevailing style of painting. In early Egypt, painted portraits and relief sculptures only showed the subject in profile. A portrait painted during the Baroque era would be more exuberant than the dignified Neo-Classical pictures, but neither was as down to earth as those of the Realists.

Likewise, Romantic portraiture was more animated than Impressionist portraits, while Expressionist portraiture from the early twentieth century is typically the most garish and colourful of all eras. That said, in very simple terms one can detect two basic styles or approaches in portrait-painting: the 'Grand Style' in which the subject is depicted in a more idealized or 'larger-than-life' form; and the realistic, prosaic style in which the subject is represented in a more down to earth realistic manner.

Although the greatest portraitists, like Leonardo, Michelangelo and Rembrandt mastered both styles, most artists tend to exemplify one tradition only.

Jan van Eyck Artworks

William Orpen , one of the great Irish portrait artists also painted in the grand 'academic style'. Others specialized in a more down to earth portraiture, such as Jan van Eyck and Jan Vermeer , both of whom painted quiet precise works. The realist style was explored by Theodore Gericault , who produced realistic pictures of mentally ill patients, by the Russian genius Ivan Kramskoy - noted for his humanistic realism - and by other Russians like Vasily Perov Expressionist portraiture is exemplified by the emotionalism of Van Gogh , the urban portraits of Pablo Picasso , the lyrical primitivism of Amedeo Modigliani , and by the black humour of Otto Dix and Oskar Kokoschka More modern portrait painters include Graham Sutherland , noted for his mood-portraits; David Hockney b.

Meanwhile, the master of impasto Frank Auerbach b. During the history of Western Art , portrait artists have been employed for numerous reasons. First, in ancient Greece, Egypt and Rome as well as in Mycenean, Minoan and other Mediterranean cultures , painters and sculptors were used to portray a wide range of Gods and Godesses, in a range of public artworks. Examples include: Aphrodite c. The Renaissance maintained this type of religious art through its fresco murals of Christianity, featuring the Prophets, Jesus Christ, the Virgin Mary and the Apostles.

Meanwhile, Leonardo Da Vinci's The Last Supper and Michelangelo's Genesis fresco and Last Judgment fresco - on the ceiling and walls of the Sistine Chapel in Rome - contain some of the greatest religious portraits ever created. Although many of these works are not limited to a single face or figure, and some are viewable only at a distance, their aim was to pictorialize Christianity in personal form, and therefore should be regarded as part of the portrait genre. One should also note that the Renaissance attached the greatest importance to painting that portrayed a narrative or message.

Thus artists typically included their 'portraits' within large narrative scenes.