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Methods for cultivating this species are well developed Griffin, ; Torchio, Literature on the culture and management of many alternative pollinators is available Batra, a,b; Bosch and Kemp, ; Free, ; Kevan et al. For some crops, bumble bees, megachilids, and other native bees are more efficient pollinators than are honey bees Cane, ; Javorek et al. Pollination has value in two very different senses.

Its intrinsic value or essential worth is conceptual, so it cannot be measured easily. The economic value of pollination is its worth for human ends, as determined through exchanges of goods or services NRC, The aggregate economic value of pollination services is the difference between what consumers are willing to pay demand and what it costs producers to provide those services supply.

Where markets do not exist as for pollination services provided by wild pollinators , it is difficult to estimate economic value, although environmental economists have developed methods of approximation NRC, Where markets exist as for agricultural crop pollination , economic values can be estimated for discrete changes in supply and demand.

For the case of commercial honey bee pollination services, the consumers are the crop growers and the producers are the beekeepers. The demand curve that describes the number of honey bee colonies the growers are willing to rent at different prices for pollination is derived from what individual growers expect to earn from yield gains attributable to pollination; their demand depends on expected crop prices, expected yield gains, and the costs of available alternative means of pollination.

Because growers raise different crops under different conditions, some are willing to pay more than others. Beekeeping also differs in costs and earning opportunities. A beekeeper who must transport bees a long distance will have higher costs than will one who. An improved understanding of the mechanics of pollination and of its active management led to the commercialization and worldwide expansion of many crops, hitherto an impossibility.


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Common figs Ficus carica and Smyrna figs in California are a case in point. Ficus species are primarily pollinated by agaonid fig wasps in highly species-specific associations Bronstein, ; Machado et al. Fig production did not become established in. More details on supply and demand effects and an example relating to almond pollination are presented in Chapter 4. Three basic methods have been used to estimate the value of commercial honey bee pollination services Table The first is simply to equate the value of services with the amount paid for them Rucker et al.

The second approach also is the most common. It attributes all crop value to pollination and ignores other inputs required to produce the crop. Neither of the first two methods considers that a shift in honey bee supply for example, because of a new disease or pest could raise crop prices and thus alter grower demand for pollination services Kevan and Phillips, Southwick and Southwick attempted to capture that effect by estimating the price elasticities of demand for U.

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Even where markets exist and price effects are considered, it is impossible to make reliable estimates of the total value of an ecosystem service such as pollination. The market value of pollination supply shifts can be reliably estimated only for relatively small perturbations from values that have been observed in the past. Even the threat of a complete loss of pollination services would induce some people to pay extraordinarily high prices to prevent a total loss of the service.

Others, however, would do without. Such price-quantity relationships fall well outside prior experience. For pollination services provided by wild pollinators where markets do not exist, current estimates of nonmarket value are fraught with limiting assumptions.

The economic value of extreme deviations, such as losing all pollination services, cannot be soundly estimated Heal, If calculable, the economic value of keeping pollination services would be very high, similar to their intrinsic value. California until fig wasps were imported in the s for pollination and growers learned to identify the proper species for pollination and determine overwintering requirements to synchronize wasp life cycles with the plants McGregor, ; Swingle, Although pollinators are in most cases managed for crop pollination, there are examples of pollinator management to achieve other goals.

Hobby beekeepers often keep bees primarily for honey production or for personal satisfaction rather than for pollination. Honey bees have been recruited. Bees are used to deliver Bacillus subtilis to blueberry flowers to suppress Monilinia vaccinicorymbosi , or mummy berry disease, a devastating fungus Dedej et al. They also have been used to deliver Trichoderma harzianum , a commercially produced agent for control of the pathogenic fungus Botrytis cinerea on strawberries Kovach et al. There is a continuing effort to investigate the potential of honey bees as biological monitors for environmental contaminants Bromenshenk et al.

In addition to active management, pollinators can also be managed passively—that is, their activities can be manipulated by altering environmental conditions to promote their diversity and population growth or to influence particular behavior Shepherd et al.


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Passive management includes farming to promote the growth of floral resources, providing artificial nest materials and nest sites, and protecting nesting habitat. All of these practices are designed to increase the diversity of the pollinator community and the abundances of particular species Kevan et al. Pollination as a biotic process has both commercial and ecological value. In the context of agriculture, pollination provides a wide range of benefits to a broad diversity of commodities across North America. In some cases, production of the commodity itself results directly from the act of pollination for example, fruit production.

In other cases, although pollination does not result in production of the commodity itself, the process contributes to crop propagation for example, production of seeds used to grow a root crop such as carrots or quality for example, size of tomatoes has been linked to repeated pollination. There are indirect benefits as well, through food-chain relationships. Although these indirect effects tend to exaggerate the economic value of pollination, they have been used in several widely cited studies see Table The annual value of honey bee pollination to U.

Southwick and Southwick, b. The lowest U. Table compares studies that include estimates of such willingness to pay for pollination services and it provides a breakdown of total reported values as direct benefits to crops, indirect benefits to crops, and indirect benefits to livestock. Values reported by Morse and Calderone and by Levin include indirect benefits of the honey bee pollination required for seed production in alfalfa hay, asparagus, broccoli, carrot, cauliflower, celery, onion, and sugar beet.

Levin included Attributing the full market value of such indirect effects to pollination exaggerates the economic value of pollination services, because indirect products like alfalfa hay or cattle require many production inputs besides alfalfa seed.

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Even the alfalfa seed made possible by pollination requires that farmers provide other costly production inputs. These and other limitations of estimating economic values are discussed in Box Given the estimates currently available, consistent comparisons can be made across those economic values based on the direct effects of pollinators.

The contributions of A. Some vertebrates also operate as pollinators of ecologically and economically important plants. Tropical trees of the family Bombacaceae, which includes species used for timber, silk cotton, balsa wood, and other products, rely primarily on bats for pollination Bawa, ; Watson and Dallwitz, Many columnar cacti and agaves, which are important sources of alcoholic beverages tequila, mescal and other products sisal fibers , also depend on bats and birds for pollination Arizaga and Ezcurra, ; Arizaga et al.

Globally, pollinators are fundamentally important for the production of roughly 30 percent of the human diet and most fibers cotton and flax , edible oils, alcoholic beverages, nutraceuticals, and medicines created from plants Buchmann and Nabhan, ; McGregor, ; Roubik, Estimating the value of pollinators and pollination in natural ecosystems and predicting the consequences of their losses are considerably more challenging than estimating their economic value in agriculture.

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Such estimates are complicated by both the number of species involved globally, more than , and the relative paucity of information available for most of those species. For example, in their effort to calculate the economic value of ecological services provided by insects, Losey and Vaughan did not attempt to place a dollar value on the contributions of pollinators to maintenance of natural plant communities, although it is reasonable to assume that a significant proportion of plants in uncultivated terrestrial communities rely upon pollinators.

These plants, in turn, contribute to many ecosystem services of value to humans, such as water filtration, carbon sequestration, and flood and erosion control Daily et al. An added complication is that insect pollinators may contribute ecosystem services other than pollination in their larval stages. The value of these services is.


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Dobson et al. In this system, pollination is considered a Type C or E service for most ecosystems, with species losses having significant impacts on trophic stability.

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Indeed, pollination is the only mutualistic association singled out by Dobson et al. The study of pollinator-plant interactions is a thriving, albeit small, area of inquiry. There are no professional societies dedicated to this pursuit, and publications in the field appear in a wide range of journals. In Canada, pollination biology courses have been recently offered at the University of Guelph, Ontario, and at the University of Manitoba.

Many pollination biologists, conservationists, and land managers benefit from an annual day class the Bee Course, now in its ninth year,. Concerns about the status of pollinators in North America over the last quarter-century have arisen in two different contexts. The agricultural community has voiced concerns over fluctuations in the health and availability of A. Although the U. Although A.

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However, the actual contribution of this. Today, the primary concern among beekeepers is the varroa mite, which continues to cause major losses of managed hives Caron and Hubner, ; Finley et al. Infection with V. The high rate of mortality is the combined result of several factors, including low levels of natural resistance to mites in the honey bee population; inadequate stock development and production facilities; widespread use of pesticides, which helps to maintain mite-susceptible genotypes in the honey bee population; and widespread pesticide resistance in the mite population.

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Few honey bee breeding programs artificial selection have successfully consolidated low levels of existing mite resistance into strains with significant levels of mite resistance Harbo and Harris, a. Honey bees have been widely regarded as having suffered under the weight of those stresses. Also, parasitic mites had, by all accounts, an even more serious and negative effect on the population of feral honey bee colonies Hoopingarner, ; Kraus and Page, ; Loper, , , These losses occurred as demand for agricultural pollination services was increasing dramatically, particularly for crops that depend completely on pollinators.

The almond-growing business presents a compelling example Figure Over the 25 years between and , U. Approximately 1. Fall primarily denotes descending motion, either in a perpendicular or inclined direction, and, in most of its applications, implies, literally or figuratively , velocity, haste, suddenness, or violence.