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"This book provides practical, and direct information about sex, and sexual orientation. It is based on my clinical experience in the field of STI/HIV and on my.
Table of contents
- 12.1. The Difference between Sex, Gender, and Sexuality
- Theory of Sexual Politics
- Reporting recent sexual practices: Gay men's disclosure of HIV risk by questionnaire and interview
For many women, sharing love and closeness without having an orgasm is satisfying. But other women may feel that not having an orgasm is a problem. They may want to find a solution. Women with orgasmic disorder may. When gynecologists or other health care professionals talk about sexual pain, they often refer to two conditions: 1 vaginismus and 2 dyspareunia. These conditions can cause several symptoms, including. A pain disorder is diagnosed if the pain interferes with sexual function. Women whose sexual activity does not include penetration also can have a pain disorder.
Some women develop sexual pain problems after pregnancy. Some women have sexual problems soon after starting or stopping some medications.
12.1. The Difference between Sex, Gender, and Sexuality
Drugs that may cause problems with sex include the following:. Using alcohol, marijuana, and pain-relieving drugs such as opioids also can lead to problems with sex. There are many things you can do alone or with a partner to address a sexual problem, including the following:. It may help to track your symptoms in a journal. Then you can explain your symptoms to your gynecologist or other health care professional. Your gynecologist or other health care professional may ask you a lot of questions about your physical and mental health. They may ask about. You also may have a physical exam and a pelvic exam.
If you have pain during intercourse, your health care professional may try to recreate this pain by touching sensitive areas. This may help to find the cause. Each type of female sexual dysfunction is treated differently. Recommendations may depend on your symptoms:. You also may be referred to a sex therapist, even if you also are receiving medical treatment. Couples therapy or counseling on your own may be helpful. Foreplay : Sexual activity, including kissing and touching, that leads to arousal before sex.
This identity may or may not correspond to the sex assigned at birth. Hormone : A substance made in the body that controls the function of cells or organs. Kegel Exercises : Pelvic muscle exercises. Doing these exercises helps with bladder and bowel control as well as sexual function.
Because the meanings attached to symbols are socially created and not natural, and fluid, not static, we act and react to symbols based on the current assigned meaning. Furthermore, the word gay as it refers to a homosexual carried a somewhat negative and unfavourable meaning 50 years ago, but has since gained more neutral and even positive connotations. These shifts in symbolic meaning apply to family structure as well.
In , when only Today, a majority of women with preschool-aged children are part of the paid workforce Sociologist Charles H. In , Broverman and Broverman conducted a groundbreaking study on the traits mental health workers ascribed to males and females. When asked to name the characteristics of a female, the list featured words such as unaggressive, gentle, emotional, tactful, less logical, not ambitious, dependent, passive, and neat.
The list of male characteristics featured words such as aggressive, rough, unemotional, blunt, logical, direct, active, and sloppy Seem and Clark, Later, when asked to describe the characteristics of a healthy person not gender specific , the list was nearly identical to that of a male. This study uncovered the general assumption that being female is associated with being somewhat unhealthy or not of sound mind. This concept seems extremely dated, but in , Seem and Clark replicated the study and found similar results. Again, the characteristics associated with a healthy male were very similar to that of a healthy genderless adult.
The list of characteristics associated with being female broadened somewhat but did not show significant change from the original study Seem and Clark, This interpretation of feminine characteristics may help us one day to better understand gender disparities in certain illnesses, such as why one in eight women can be expected to develop clinical depression in her lifetime National Institute of Mental Health In the area of sexuality, sociologists focus their attention on sexual attitudes and practices, not on physiology or anatomy.
Studying sexual attitudes and practices is a particularly interesting field of sociology because sexual behaviour is a cultural universal. Throughout time and place, the vast majority of human beings have participated in sexual relationships Broude, Each society, however, interprets sexuality and sexual activity in different ways. Many societies around the world have different attitudes about premarital sex, the age of sexual consent, homosexuality, masturbation, and other sexual behaviours that are not consistent with universally cultural norms Widmer, Treas, and Newcomb, At the same time, sociologists have learned that certain norms like the disapproval of incest are shared among most societies.
Likewise, societies generally have norms that reinforce their accepted social system of sexuality. Societies that value monogamy, for example, would likely oppose extramarital sex. Individuals are socialized to sexual attitudes by their family, education system, peers, media, and religion. Historically, religion has been the greatest influence on sexual behaviour in most societies, but in more recent years, peers and the media have emerged as two of the strongest influences — particularly with North American teens Potard, Courtois, and Rusch, Let us take a closer look at sexual attitudes in Canada and around the world.
Cross-national research on sexual attitudes in industrialized nations reveals that normative standards differ across the world.
For example, several studies have shown that Scandinavian students are more tolerant of premarital sex than are North American students Grose, A study of 37 countries reported that non-Western societies — like China, Iran, and India — valued chastity highly in a potential mate, while Western European countries — such as France, the Netherlands, and Sweden — placed little value on prior sexual experiences Buss, Even among Western cultures, attitudes can differ.
Sexual attitudes can also vary within a country. Of industrialized nations, Sweden is thought to be the most liberal when it comes to attitudes about sex, including sexual practices and sexual openness. The country has very few regulations on sexual images in the media, and sex education, which starts around age six, is a compulsory part of Swedish school curricula.
It would appear that Sweden is a model for the benefits of sexual freedom and frankness. However, implementing Swedish ideals and policies regarding sexuality in other, more politically conservative, nations would likely be met with resistance. North American culture is particularly restrictive in its attitudes about sex when it comes to women and sexuality. It is widely believed that men are more sexual than women. In fact, there is a popular notion that men think about sex every seven seconds.
Theory of Sexual Politics
Research, however, suggests that men think about sex an average of 19 times per day, compared to 10 times per day for women Fisher, Moore, and Pittenger, The belief that men have — or have the right to — more sexual urges than women creates a double standard. Ira Reiss, a pioneer researcher in the field of sexual studies, defined the double standard as prohibiting premarital sexual intercourse for women but allowing it for men Reiss, This standard has evolved into allowing women to engage in premarital sex only within committed love relationships, but allowing men to engage in sexual relationships with as many partners as they wish without condition Milhausen and Herold, Due to this double standard, a woman is likely to have fewer sexual partners in her lifetime than a man.
According to a Centers for Disease Control and Prevention CDC survey, the average year-old woman has had three opposite-sex sexual partners while the average year-old man has had twice as many Centers for Disease Control, In a study of 1, Canadians over the age of 18, men had had an average of One of the principal insights of contemporary sociology is that a focus on the social construction of different social experiences and problems leads to alternative ways of understanding them and responding to them.
The sociologist often confronts a legacy of entrenched beliefs concerning innate biological disposition, or the individual psychopathology of persons who are considered abnormal. However, as Ian Hacking observes, even when these beliefs about kinds of persons are products of objective scientific classification, the institutional context of science and expert knowledge is not independent of societal norms, beliefs, and practices.
The powerful normative constraints that emerged based largely on the 19th century scientific distinction between natural and unnatural forms of sexuality lead to the legacy of closeted sexuality and homophobic violence that remains to this day. Nevertheless, they depend on the concept of the homosexual as a specific kind of person.
Reporting recent sexual practices: Gay men's disclosure of HIV risk by questionnaire and interview
As Hacking points out, the category of classification, or the label that defines different kinds of people, actually influences their behaviour and self-understanding. They begin to experience the world and live in society in a different manner than they did previously.
Ironically, the gay rights movement has built on the same biological and psychiatric definitions of the homosexual as a kind of person so to reverse the negative consequences of homophobic culture. Redefining the meaning of being a homosexual type of person advances the social acceptance of gays and lesbians. To some degree the gay rights movement has accepted the idea of the homosexual as a kind of person, and they have self-identified as such, but the outcome of this relabeling has not yet completely reversed the negative connotations of being gay. Sociologists representing all three major theoretical perspectives study the role that sexuality plays in social life today.
Scholars recognize that sexuality continues to be an important factor in social hierarchies and relations of power and that the manner in which sexuality is constructed has a significant effect on perceptions, interactions, health, and outcomes. When it comes to sexuality, functionalists stress the importance of regulating sexual behaviour to ensure marital cohesion and family stability. Since functionalists identify the family unit as the most integral component in society, they maintain a strict focus on it at all times and argue in favour of social arrangements that promote and ensure family preservation.
Functionalists such as Talcott Parsons have long argued that the regulation of sexual activity is an important function of the family. Social norms surrounding family life have, traditionally, encouraged sexual activity within the family unit marriage and have discouraged activity outside of it premarital and extramarital sex.
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From a functionalist point of view, the purpose of encouraging sexual activity in the confines of marriage is to intensify the bond between spouses and to ensure that procreation occurs within a stable, legally recognized relationship. This structure gives offspring the best possible chance for appropriate socialization and the provision of basic resources.
From a functionalist standpoint, homosexuality poses a potential dysfunction in terms of both the procreative role of the family and the unifying myths that the traditional family provides. Strictly speaking, homosexual couples cannot have children together so, for them at least, procreation would cease. It is of course not the case that homosexuals are unable to marry or procreate with members of the opposite sex as this has occurred throughout history.
Similarly, the deep connection — between the traditional family form, religion, cultural practices and beliefs — provides a unifying force of social cohesion that gay marriage threatens. Thus, homosexuality disrupts the existing functional order. The functions of the traditional family structure need to be served or satisfied by different family structures for a working social equilibrium to be restored.
From a critical perspective, sexuality is another area in which power differentials are present and where dominant groups actively work to promote their worldview as well as their economic interests. Homosexuality was criminalized in Canada in It was not until that the Criminal Code was amended to relax the laws against homosexuality. It was not until that same-sex couples were given the right to marry.