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The new regime stumbles, the economy flounders and the country in India, which had the world's largest population of poor people, During the 19th century monarchists fought a prolonged rearguard action against democratic forces. Faith in democracy flares up in moments of triumph, such as the.
Table of contents
- 7. How religion may affect educational attainment: scholarly theories and historical background
- A brief history of globalization
- Inglorious Empire: what the British did to India
A major development was the decision of the ruler of Melaka, on the west coast of the Malay Peninsula, to adopt Islam around Melaka was a key trading center, and the Malay language, spoken in the Malay Peninsula and east Sumatra, was used as a lingua franca in trading ports throughout the Malay-Indonesian archipelago. Malay is not a difficult language to learn, and it was already understood by many people along the trade routes that linked the island world. Muslim teachers therefore had a common language through which they could communicate new concepts through oral presentations and written texts.
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A modified Arabic script displaced the previous Malay script. Arabic words were incorporated into Malay, particularly in regard to spiritual beliefs, social practices, and political life. Local heroes often became Islamic saints, and their graves were venerated places at which to worship. Some aspects of mystical Islam resembled pre-Islamic beliefs, notably on Java.
Women never adopted the full face veil, and the custom of taking more than one wife was limited to wealthy elites. Law codes based on Islam usually made adjustments to fit local customs. Pork was forbidden to Muslims, a significant development in areas like eastern Indonesia and the southern Philippines where it had long been a ritual food. A Muslim could often be recognized by a different dress style, like chest covering for women. Male circumcision became an important rite of passage. Reforming tendencies gained strength in the early nineteenth century when a group known as the Wahhabis captured Mecca.
The Wahhabis demanded a stricter observance of Islamic law.
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Although their appeal was limited in Southeast Asia, some people were attracted to Wahhabi styles of teaching. There was a growing feeling that greater observance of Islamic doctrine might help Muslims resist the growing power of Europeans. Muslim leaders were often prominent in anti-colonial movements, especially in Indonesia. However, the influence of modernist Islamic thinking that developed in Egypt meant educated Muslims in Southeast Asia also began to think about reforming Islam as a way of answering the Western challenge. Europeans eventually colonized all Southeast Asia except for Thailand.
After these countries gained their independence following World War II, the major question for politically active Muslims has concerned the relationship between Islam and the state. In countries where Muslims are in a minority like Thailand and the Philippines this relationship is still causing tension.
In Malaysia, Muslims are only around 55 percent of the population and there must be significant adjustments with the largest non-Muslim group, the Chinese. In Indonesia, Muslims are engaged in a continuing debate about different ways of observing the faith, and hether Islam should assume a greater role in government. Geography, Environment, and Cultural Zones Virtually all of Southeast Asia lies between the tropics, and so there are similarities in climate as well as plant and animal life throughout the region. Lifestyle, Livelihood, and Subsistence A distinctive feature of Southeast Asia is its cultural diversity.
Additional Background Reading. Islamic Belief Made Visual. This essay looks at Islam's influence on the arts of Southeast Asia. Shahnama: The Book of Kings.
Learn about the political and social changes under Iran's Safavid Dynasty by examining the Book of Kings. Religion in the Philippines. The Philippines boasts to be the only Christian nation in Asia.
7. How religion may affect educational attainment: scholarly theories and historical background
Learn about its religious diversity and history. Islamic Calligraphy and the Illustrated Manuscript. The calligraphic tradition, which grew out of the demand for illuminated Qur'ans, became an important art form worldwide. Islam in Southeast Asia. An essay about the spread of Islam into Southeast Asia and how religion and expression fit within societal contexts.
A brief history of globalization
Try Our Online Professional Development. Teaching for Global Competence. Hume, who is credited with organizing the Congress Party, attended the first session of the Congress as the only British delegate. Despite the combination of official disdain and hostility, the Congress quickly won substantial Indian support and within two years had grown to number more than delegates.
The first partition of Bengal in brought that province to the brink of open rebellion. The British recognized that Bengal, with some 85 million people, was much too large for a single province and determined that it merited reorganization and intelligent division. As a reaction against the partition, Bengali Hindus launched an effective boycott of British-made goods and dramatized their resolve to live without foreign cloth by igniting huge bonfires of Lancashire-made textiles. Such bonfires, re-creating ancient Vedic sacrificial altars, aroused Hindus in Poona, Madras, and Bombay to light similar political pyres of protest.
Instead of wearing foreign-made cloth, Indians vowed to use only domestic swadeshi cottons and other clothing made in India. Simple hand-spun and hand-woven sari s became high fashion, first in Calcutta and elsewhere in Bengal and then all across India, and displaced the finest Lancashire garments, which were now viewed as hateful imports. The swadeshi movement soon stimulated indigenous enterprise in many fields, from Indian cotton mills to match factories, glassblowing shops, and iron and steel foundries.
Increased demands for national education also swiftly followed partition. The movement for national education spread throughout Bengal, as well as to Varanasi Banaras , where Pandit Madan Mohan Malaviya — founded his private Banaras Hindu University in The era of effective Mughal rule c. In the last of the Mughal emperors had served as a rallying symbol for many mutineers, and in the wake of the mutiny most Britons placed the burden of blame for its inception on the Muslim community.
Aligarh became the intellectual cradle of the Muslim League and Pakistan. Minto promised that any reforms enacted by his government would safeguard the separate interests of the Muslim community. Separate Muslim electorates, formally inaugurated by the Indian Councils Act of , were thus vouchsafed by viceregal fiat in Hampered though he was by the viceroy, Lord Minto, the new secretary of state for India, John Morley , was able to introduce several important innovations into the legislative and administrative machinery of the British Indian government.
Gupta, the senior Indian in the ICS. Sinha — , in He was elected president of the Congress Party in and became parliamentary undersecretary of state for India in and governor of Bihar and Orissa now Odisha in Though the initial electorate was a minuscule minority of Indians enfranchised by property ownership and education, in some elected Indian representatives took their seats as members of legislative councils throughout British India.
The act of also increased the maximum additional membership of the supreme council from 16 to which it had been raised by the Councils Act of to In the provincial councils of Bombay, Bengal, and Madras, which had been created in , the permissible total membership had been raised to 20 by the act of , and that number was increased in to 50, a majority of whom were to be nonofficial; the number of council members in other provinces was similarly increased.
In abolishing the official majorities of provincial legislatures, Morley was following the advice of Gokhale and other liberal Congress Party leaders, such as Romesh Chunder Dutt — , and overriding the bitter opposition of not only the ICS but also his own viceroy and council. Minto and his officials in Calcutta and Simla did succeed in watering down the reforms by writing stringent regulations for their implementation and insisting upon the retention of executive veto power over all legislation.
Elected members of the new councils were empowered, nevertheless, to engage in spontaneous supplementary questioning, as well as in formal debate with the executive concerning the annual budget. Members were also permitted to introduce legislative proposals of their own. Gokhale took immediate advantage of the vital new parliamentary procedures by introducing a measure for free and compulsory elementary education throughout British India.
In the Congress Party held its annual meeting in Surat , but the assembly, plagued by conflict, never came to order long enough to hear the presidential address of its moderate president-elect, Rash Behari Ghose — The division of the Congress reflected broad tactical differences between the liberal evolutionary and militant revolutionary wings of the national organization and those aspiring to the presidency.
Inglorious Empire: what the British did to India
Harsher repression seemed only to breed more violent agitation. Before the end of , Minto finally returned home, and Morley appointed the liberal Lord Hardinge to succeed him as viceroy governed — Reunification of Bengal indeed served somewhat to mollify Bengali Hindus, but the downgrading of Calcutta from imperial to mere provincial capital status was simultaneously a blow to bhadralok egos and to Calcutta real estate values. Political unrest continued, now attracting Muslim as well as Hindu acts of terrorist violence, and Lord Hardinge himself was nearly assassinated by a bomb thrown into his howdah on top of his viceregal elephant as he entered Delhi in The would-be assassin escaped in the crowd.
In many ways—politically, economically, and socially—the impact of the conflict was as pervasive as that of the mutiny of — Indian princes volunteered their men, money, and personal service, while leaders of the Congress Party—from Tilak, who had just been released from Mandalay and had wired the king-emperor vowing his patriotic support, to Gandhi, who toured Indian villages urging peasants to join the British army—were allied in backing the war effort.
Support from the Congress Party was primarily offered on the assumption that Britain would repay such loyal assistance with substantial political concessions—if not immediate independence or at least dominion status following the war, then surely its promise soon after the Allies achieved victory. They were shipped directly to France and moved up to the battered Belgian line just in time for the First Battle of Ypres. The Indian Corps sustained extraordinarily heavy losses during the winter campaigns of —15 on the Western Front.
The myth of Indian racial inferiority, especially with respect to courage in battle, was thus dissolved in sepoy blood on Flanders fields. In Indians were at last admitted to the final bastion of British Indian racial discrimination—the ranks of royal commissioned officers. In the early months of the war, Indian troops also were rushed to eastern Africa and Egypt, and by the end of more than , officers and men of the British Indian Army had been shipped to overseas garrisons and battlefronts.
The prize of Baghdad seemed within reach of British arms, but, less than two weeks after Gen. During his tour, Montagu conferred with his new viceroy, Lord Chelmsford governed —21 , and their lengthy deliberations bore fruit in the Montagu-Chelmsford Report of , the theoretical basis for the Government of India Act of Anti-British terrorist activity started soon after the war began, sparked by the return to India of hundreds of embittered Sikh s who had sought to emigrate from their Punjab homes to Canada but who were denied permission to disembark in that country because of their colour.
As British subjects, the Sikhs had assumed they would gain entry to underpopulated Canada, but, after wretched months aboard an old Japanese freighter the Komagata Maru in cramped and unsanitary conditions with inadequate food supplies, they returned to India as confirmed revolutionaries. Muslim disaffection also grew and acquired revolutionary dimensions as the Mesopotamian campaign dragged on. Many Indian Muslims appealed to Afghanistan for aid and urged the emir to start a holy war against the British and in defense of the caliphate.